Molecular Psychiatry

In his seminal work, The Origin of Species, Darwin begins with a long discourse on variation in domesticated species.1 He considers the differences in strains of pigeons, sheep, and dogs to address the fundamental questions of how and when new species form. Darwin suggests that new species are the result of extreme within-species variation. Individual changes become so extreme that a new species buds off from an existing one with either physical isolation or environmental pressure. Although Darwin could not know about modern genetics, in contemporary terms his hypothesis could be re-stated as within-species variation precedes between-species variation. Comparative genomics flips this hypothesis by proposing that regions that vary between species are likely to be hotspots that vary between individuals.

The ability to inhibit unwanted actions is a heritable executive function that may confer risk to disorders such as attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD). Converging evidence from pharmacology and cognitive neuroscience suggests that response inhibition is instantiated within frontostriatal circuits of the brain with patterns of activity that are modulated by the catecholamines dopamine and noradrenaline. A total of 405 healthy adult participants performed the stop-signal task, a paradigmatic measure of response inhibition that yields an index of the latency of inhibition, termed the stop-signal reaction time (SSRT). Using this phenotype, we tested for genetic association, performing high-density single-nucleotide polymorphism mapping across the full range of autosomal catecholamine genes. Fifty participants also underwent functional magnetic resonance imaging to establish the impact of associated alleles on brain and behaviour. Allelic variation in polymorphisms of the dopamine transporter gene (SLC6A3: rs37020; rs460000) predicted individual differences in SSRT, after corrections for multiple comparisons. Furthermore, activity in frontal regions (anterior frontal, superior frontal and superior medial gyri) and caudate varied additively with the T-allele of rs37020. The influence of genetic variation in SLC6A3 on the development of frontostriatal inhibition networks may represent a key risk mechanism for disorders of behavioural inhibition.

Molecular Psychiatry publishes work aimed at elucidating biological mechanisms underlying psychiatric disorders and their treatment

We have mapped and sequenced both chromosome breakpoints of a balanced t(6;11)(q14.2;q25) chromosome translocation that segregates with a schizophrenia-like psychosis. Bioinformatics analysis of the regions revealed a number of confirmed and predicted transcripts. No confirmed transcripts are disrupted by either breakpoint. The chromosome 6 breakpoint region is gene poor, the closest transcript being the serotonin receptor 1E (HTR1E) at 625 kb telomeric to the breakpoint. The chromosome 11 breakpoint is situated close to the telomere. The closest gene, beta-1,3-glucuronyltransferase (B3GAT1 or GlcAT-P), is 299 kb centromeric to the breakpoint. B3GAT1 is the key enzyme during the biosynthesis of the carbohydrate epitope HNK-1, which is present on a number of cell adhesion molecules important in neurodevelopment. Mice deleted for the B3GAT1 gene show defects in hippocampal long-term potentiation and in spatial memory formation. We propose that the translocation causes a positional effect on B3GAT1, affecting expression levels and making it a plausible candidate for the psychosis found in this family. More generally, regions close to telomeres are highly polymorphic in both sequence and length in the general population and several studies have implicated subtelomeric deletions as a common cause of idiopathic mental retardation. This leads us to the hypothesis that polymorphic or other variation of the 11q telomere may affect the activity of B3GAT1 and be a risk factor for schizophrenia and related psychoses in the general population.

Positron emission tomography (PET) studies with the selective 5-HT(1A) receptor ligand, [(11)C]WAY-100635, have indicated that the binding potential (BP) of brain 5-HT(1A) receptors is lowered in unmedicated subjects with acute major depression. However, it is unclear if these changes persist after recovery from depression. To resolve this issue, we used [(11)C]WAY-100635 in conjunction with PET imaging to compare 5-HT(1A) BP in 18 healthy controls and 14 male subjects with recurrent major depression who were clinically recovered and free of antidepressant medication. BP values, derived from a reference tissue model, were analysed by region of interest and statistical parametric mapping. Both analyses showed a widespread and substantial (17%) decrease in 5-HT(1A) receptor BP in cortical areas in the recovered depressed subjects. In contrast, 5-HT(1A) BP in the raphe nuclei did not distinguish depressed subjects from controls. Our results suggest a persistent dysfunction in cortical 5-HT(1A) BP as measured by [(11)C]WAY-100635 in recovered depressed men. Lowered 5-HT(1A) receptor binding availability could represent a trait abnormality that confers vulnerability to recurrent major depression.

Quantitative genetic research suggests that reading disability is the quantitative extreme of the same genetic and environmental factors responsible for normal variation in reading ability. This finding warrants a quantitative trait locus (QTL) strategy that compares low versus high extremes of the normal distribution of reading in the search for QTLs associated with variation throughout the distribution. A low reading ability group (N=755) and a high reading group (N=747) were selected from a representative UK sample of 7-year-olds assessed on two measures of reading that we have shown to be highly heritable and highly genetically correlated. The low and high reading ability groups were each divided into 10 independent DNA pools and the 20 pools were assayed on 100 K single nucleotide polymorphism (SNP) microarrays to screen for the largest allele frequency differences between the low and high reading ability groups. Seventy five of these nominated SNPs were individually genotyped in an independent sample of low (N=452) and high (N=452) reading ability children selected from a second sample of 4258 7-year-olds. Nine of the seventy-five SNPs were nominally significant (P<0.05) in the predicted direction. These 9 SNPs and 14 other SNPs showing low versus high allele frequency differences in the predicted direction were genotyped in the rest of the second sample to test the QTL hypothesis. Ten SNPs yielded nominally significant linear associations in the expected direction across the distribution of reading ability. However, none of these SNP associations accounted for more than 0.5% of the variance of reading ability, despite 99% power to detect them. We conclude that QTL effect sizes, even for highly heritable common disorders and quantitative traits such as early reading disability and ability, might be much smaller than previously considered.

Serotonin (5-HT) neurotransmission is implicated in cognitive and emotional processes and a number of neuropsychiatric disorders. The use of positron emission tomography (PET) to measure ligand displacement has allowed estimation of endogenous dopamine release in the human brain; however, applying this methodology to assess central 5-HT release has proved more challenging. The aim of this study was to assess the sensitivity of a highly selective 5-HT 1A partial agonist radioligand [11C] CUMI-101 to changes in endogenous 5-HT levels induced by an intravenous challenge with the selective 5-HT re-uptake inhibitor (SSRI), citalopram, in healthy human participants. We studied 15 healthy participants who underwent PET scanning in conjunction with [11C] CUMI-101 after receiving an intravenous infusion of citalopram 10 mg or placebo in a double-blind, crossover, randomized design. Regional estimates of binding potential (BPND) were obtained by calculating total volumes of distribution (V T) for presynaptic dorsal raphe nucleus (DRN) and postsynaptic cortical regions. Relative to placebo, citalopram infusion significantly increased [11C] CUMI-101 BP ND at postsynaptic 5-HT1A receptors in several cortical regions, but there was no change in binding at 5-HT1A autoreceptors in the DRN. Across the postsynaptic brain regions, citalopram treatment induced a mean 7% in [ 11C] CUMI-101 BPND (placebo 1.3 (0.2); citalopram 1.4 (0.2); paired t-test P0.003). The observed increase in postsynaptic [ 11C] CUMI-101 availability identified following acute citalopram administration could be attributable to a decrease in endogenous 5-HT availability in cortical terminal regions, consistent with preclinical animal studies, in which acute administration of SSRIs decreases DRN cell firing through activation of 5-HT1A autoreceptors to reduce 5-HT levels in postsynaptic regions. We conclude that [11C] CUMI-101 may be sensitive to changes in endogenous 5-HT release in humans.

Molecular Psychiatry publishes work aimed at elucidating biological mechanisms underlying psychiatric disorders and their treatment

Ethanol preference and behavioral disinhibition in AA (alcohol accepting) animals is a behavioral constellation similar to that seen in human type II alcoholism, for which considerable genetic loading has been shown. In search of novel neural substrates for this phenotype, we compared gene expression in the cerebral cortex of the AA rat with two groups of control animals, the ANA (alcohol non-accepting) line and heterogeneous Wistar animals, by differential display RT-PCR. We identified two transcripts, ribosomal protein L18a mRNA and diacyglycerol kinase iota mRNA, which are differentially expressed between AA and ANA rats. Ribosomal protein L18A mRNA is evenly expressed throughout the brain, but strongly reduced in cortex of AA rats vs controls. Diacylglycerol kinase iota is exclusively found in the brain, and expressed in a distinct regional pattern. Its cortical expression is about 25% higher in AA than ANA rats. Differential display RT-PCR seems to provide a feasible strategy to identify previously unknown genes whose differential expression correlates with behavioral phenotypes related to dependence.

A polymorphism in the serotonin (5-HT) transporter gene regulatory region (5-HTTLPR) is associated with measures of 5-HT transporter (5-HTT) expression and 5-HT-mediated behaviors in humans. An analogous length variation of the 5-HTTLPR has been reported in rhesus monkeys (rh5-HTTLPR). A retrospective association study was conducted on 115 rhesus macaque infants either homozygous for the long 5HTTLPR variant (l/l) or heterozygous for the short and long form (l/s). To assess contributions of genotype and early rearing environment, 36 mother-reared monkeys (l/l = 26, l/s = 10) and 79 nursery-reared monkeys (l/l = 54, l/s = 25) were assessed on days 7, 14, 21, and 30 of life on a standardized primate neurobehavioral test designed to measure orienting, motor maturity, reflex functioning, and temperament. Both mother-reared and nursery-reared heterozygote animals demonstrated increased affective responding relative to l/l homozygotes. Nursery-reared, but not mother-reared, l/s infants exhibited lower orientation scores than their l/l counterparts. These results demonstrate the contributions of rearing environment and genetic background, and their interaction, in a nonhuman primate model of behavioral development.

Cholecystokinin (CCK) involvement in depression-like disorders is poorly documented. Here, we investigated whether CCKergic neurotransmission is relevant to depressive-like symptoms and antidepressant therapy using a novel preclinical model based on repeated social defeat over 4 weeks in rats. Repeated social defeat triggers changes that could be considered as behavioral and biological correlates of depressive symptoms in humans, such as a hyperactivity of hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) axis (increase of serum corticosterone levels and of adrenal gland weight), increased immobility time in the forced swimming test (FST), decrease of body weight and of sweet water consumption and reduction of hippocampal volume associated with a decreased cell proliferation in the dentate gyrus. In addition, in vivo microdialysis showed that cortical CCK release was tonically increased in defeated rats. Chronic imipramine treatment (16 mg kg(-1) per day for 25 days) prevented both the repeated social defeat-induced alterations of biological and behavioral parameters and the associated increase of cortical CCK release. Chronic blockade of CCK2 receptors by the specific antagonist CI-988 (1 mg kg(-1) per day for 25 days) also normalized immobility time in the FST and prevented HPA axis hyperactivity, reduction of hippocampal volume and cell proliferation and decreased sweet water intake normally evoked by repeated social defeat. These data showed that the repeated social-defeat paradigm can be considered as a suitable model of 'depression' in rats. The causal link between social defeat-evoked (1) increase in cortical CCKergic neurotransmission and (2) depression-like symptoms that we highlighted here strongly suggests that CCKergic systems may be a relevant target for novel antidepressant therapy.

The brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF) hypothesis of depression postulates that a loss of BDNF is directly involved in the pathophysiology of depression, and that its restoration may underlie the therapeutic efficacy of antidepressant treatment. While this theory has received considerable experimental support, an increasing number of studies have generated evidence which is not only inconsistent, but also directly contradicts the hypothesis. This article provides a critical review of the clinical and preclinical studies which have been responsible for this controversy, outlining pharmacological, behavioural and genetic evidence which demonstrates the contrasting role of BDNF in regulating mood and antidepressant effects throughout the brain. I will also review key studies, both human and animal, which have investigated the association of a BDNF single-nucleotide polymorphism (Val66Met) with depression pathogenesis, and detail the number of inconsistencies which also afflict this novel area of BDNF research. The article will conclude by discussing why now is a critical time to reassess the original BDNF hypothesis of depression, and look towards the formation of new models that can provide a more valid account of the complex relationships between growth factors, mood disorders and their treatment.

Variations in the human mu-opioid receptor gene have driven exploration of their biochemical, physiological and pathological relevance. We investigated the existence of variations in the nonhuman primate mu-opioid receptor gene to determine whether nonhuman primates can model genotype/phenotype associations of relevance to humans. Similar to the A118G single nucleotide polymorphism (SNP) in the human mu-opioid receptor gene, a SNP discovered in the rhesus monkey mu-opioid receptor gene (C77G) alters an amino acid in the N-terminal arm of the receptor (arginine for proline at position 26). Two mu-opioid receptor coding regions isolated from a single heterozygous (C77/G77) rhesus monkey brain were expressed in HEK-293 cells and characterized in radioreceptor assays. Paralleling the findings of increased affinity of β-endorphin by the A118G allele in the human, the rhesus monkey mu-opioid receptor protein derived from the G77-containing clone demonstrated a 3.5-fold greater affinity for β-endorphin than the receptor derived from the C77-containing clone. An assay developed to assess the incidence of the C77G SNP in a behaviorally and physiologically characterized cohort of rhesus monkeys (n=32) indicated that 44% were homozygous for C77-containing alleles, 50% were heterozygous and 6% were homozygous for G77-containing alleles. The presence of G77-containlng alleles was associated with significantly lower basal and ACTH-stimulated plasma cortisol levels (P<0.03-0.05 and P<0.02, respectively) and a significantly higher aggressive threat score (P<0.05) in vivo. In a cohort of 20 monkeys, a trend towards an inverse correlation between aggressive threat and plasma cortisol levels was observed. The findings suggest that mu-opioid receptor haplotypes in monkeys can contribute to individual variability in stress response and related aggression. The data support the use of nonhuman primates to investigate mu-opioid receptor genotype/phenotype relations of relevance to humans.

There is strong evidence for a genetic contribution to schizophrenia, but the contribution of individual candidate genes remains uncertain. We attempted to replicate a recent meta-analysis that reported an association of the catechol O-methyltransferase (COMT) Val allele with schizophrenia, and suggested that this effect may be moderated by ancestry. We included reports published subsequent to the original meta-analysis, and included a formal test of the moderating effect of ancestry in order to test whether the association operates differently in populations of European ancestry compared to populations of Asian ancestry. A corrected P-value for the 5% significance threshold was employed where appropriate, using Bonferroni's method, and studies that demonstrated departure from Hardy-Weinberg equilibrium among controls were excluded. When all studies were included in a meta-regression, there was evidence for a significant association of COMT Val allele frequency with schizophrenia case status and a significant main effect of ancestry. The interaction of COMT Val allele frequency and ancestry was also significant. However, when only studies that reported allele frequencies that did not depart significantly from Hardy-Weinberg equilibrium among controls were included, these effects were no longer significant. The results of our meta-analysis do not support an association between the COMT Val allele and schizophrenia case status, and do not support recent claims that this association may be moderated by ancestry.

To test the hypothesis that muscarinic receptors are involved in the pathology of schizophrenia, we measured muscarinic(1) (M1R) and muscarinic(4)(M4R) protein and mRNA as well as [(3)H]pirenzepine binding in Brodmann's areas (BA) 9 and 40 obtained postmortem from 20 schizophrenic and 20 age/sex-matched control subjects. There was a significant decrease in [(3)H]pirenzepine binding to BA 9 (mean +/- SEM: 151 +/- 15 vs 195 +/- 10 fmol mg(-1) ETE; P< 0.02), but not BA 40 (143 +/- 13 vs 166 +/- 11 fmol mg(-1) ETE), from subjects with schizophrenia. The level of M1R protein (0.11 +/- 0.007 vs 0.15 +/- 0.008 OD; P < 0.01), but not M4R protein, was decreased in BA9 from schizophrenic subjects with neither receptor protein being altered in BA 40. The level of M1R mRNA was decreased in BA 9 (30 +/- 7.0 vs 79 +/- 14 dpm x 10(3) mg(-1) ETE, P < 0.01) and BA 40 (28 +/- 5.9 vs 99 +/- 14, P < 0.01) with schizophrenia but M4R mRNA was only decreased in BA 40 (48 +/- 6.6 vs 89 +/- 9.9, P < 0.005). These data suggest that the M1R, at least in the dorsolateral prefrontal cortex, may have a role in the pathology of schizophrenia.

Evidence from epidemiological studies and segregation analysis suggests oligo- or polygenic inheritance in schizophrenia. Since model independent methods are thought to be most appropriate for linkage analysis in complex disorders, we performed a genome-wide autosomal screen in 71 families from Germany and Israel containing 86 independent affected sib-pairs with parental genotype information for statistical analysis strictly identity by descent. We genotyped 305 individuals with 463 markers at an average distance of approximately 10 cM genome-wide, and 1-2 cM in candidate regions (5q, 6p, q, 8p, 10p, 18p, 22q). The highest multipoint LOD scores (ASPEX) were obtained on 6p (D6S260, LOD = 2.0; D6S274, LOD = 2.2, MHC region, LOD = 2.15) and on 10p (D10S1714, LOD = 2.1), followed by 5q (D5S2066, LOD = 1.36), 6q (D6S271, LOD = 1.12; D6S1613, LOD = 1.11), 1q (D1S2675, LOD = 1.04), and 18p (broad disease model: D18S1116, LOD = 1.0). One hundred and thirty-three additional family members were available for some of the families (extended families) and were genotyped for these regions. GENEHUNTER produced a maximum NPL of 3.3 (P = 0.001) for the MHC region and NPL of 3.13 (P = 0.0015) for the region on 10p. There is support for these regions by independent groups. In genome-wide TDT analysis (sTDT, implemented in ASPEX), no marker passed the significance level of 0.0001 given by multiple testing, but nominal significance values for D10S211 (P = 0.03) and for GOLF (P = 0.0032) support further the linkage results on 10p and 18p. Our survey of 22 chromosomes identified candidate regions which should be useful to screen for schizophrenia susceptibility genes.

We report the results of a 10 cM density genome-wide scan and further fine mapping of three chromosomal candidate regions in 10 Belgian multigenerational families with bipolar (BP) disorder. This two-stage approach revealed significant evidence for linkage on chromosome 10q21.3-10q22.3, showing a maximum multipoint parametric heterogeneity logarithm of odds (HLOD) score of 3.28 and a nonparametric linkage (NPL) score of 4.00. Most of the chromosome 10q evidence was derived from a single, large Ashkenazi Jewish pedigree. Haplotype analysis in this pedigree shows that the patients share a 14-marker haplotype, defining a chromosomal candidate region of 19.2 cM. This region was reported previously as a candidate region for BP disorder in several independent linkage analysis studies and in one large meta-analysis. It was also implicated in a linkage study on schizophrenia (SZ) in Ashkenazi Jewish families. Additionally, we found suggestive evidence for linkage on chromosome 19q13.2-13.4 (HLOD 2.01, NPL 1.09) and chromosome 7q21-q22 (HLOD 1.45, NPL 2.28). Together, these observations suggest that a gene located on chromosome 10q21.3-10q22.3 is underlying the susceptibility both for SZ and for BP disorder in at least the Ashkenazi Jewish population.

Familial Alzheimer's disease (AD [MIM 104300]) has been a focus of intense investigation, primarily in Caucasian families from Europe and North America families. Although the late-onset form of familial AD, beginning after age 65 years, has been linked to regions on chromosomes 10q and 12p, the specific genetic variants have not yet been consistently identified. Using a unique cohort of families of Caribbean Hispanics ancestry, we screened the genome using 340 markers on 490 family members from 96 families with predominantly late-onset AD. We observed the strongest support for linkage on 18q (LOD=3.14). However, 17 additional markers (chromosomes 1-6, 8, 10, 12, and 14) exceeded a two-point LOD score of 1.0 under the affecteds-only autosomal dominant model or affected sibpair model. As we previously reported the fine-mapping effort on 12p showing modest evidence of linkage, we focused our fine-mapping efforts on two other candidate regions in the current report, namely 10q and 18q. We added 31 family members and eight additional Caribbean Hispanic families to fine map 10q and 18q. With additional microsatellite markers, the evidence for linkage for 18q strengthened near 112 cM, where the two-point LOD score for D18S541 was 3.37 and the highest NPL score in that region was 3.65 (P=0.000177). This narrow region contains a small number of genes expressed in the brain. However, at 10q (134-138 cM), the NPL score decreased from 3.15 (P=0.000486) to 2.1 (P=0.0218), but two broad peaks remained overlapping with previously reported peaks. Our results provide modest support for linkage on 10q and 12p in this cohort of Caribbean Hispanic families with familial Alzheimer's disease, and strong evidence for a new locus on 18q.

Bipolar disorder (BP) is a severe and common psychiatric disorder characterized by extreme mood swings. Family, twin and adoption studies strongly support a genetic component. The mode of inheritance is complex and likely involves multiple, as yet unidentified genes. To identify susceptibility loci, we conducted a genome-wide scan with 343 microsatellite markers in one of the largest, well-characterized pedigree samples assembled to date (373 individuals in 40 pedigrees). To increase power to detect linkage, scan statistics were used to examine the logarithm of odds (lod) scores based on evidence at adjacent chromosomal loci. This analysis yielded significant evidence of linkage (genome-wide P&<0.05) for markers on 2p13-16. Standard linkage analysis was also supportive of linkage to 2p13-16 (lod=3.20), and identified several other interesting regions: 4q31 (lod=3.16), 7q34 (lod=2.78), 8q13 (lod=2.06), 9q31 (lod=2.07), 10q24 (lod=2.79), 13q32 (lod=2.2), 14q21 (lod=2.36) and 17q11-12 (lod=2.75). In this systematic, large-scale study, we identified novel putative loci for BP (on 2p13-16, 8q13 and 14q21) and found support for previously proposed loci (on 4q31, 7q34, 9q31, 10q21-24, 13q32 and 17q11-12). Two of the regions implicated in our study, 2p13-14 and 13q32, have also been linked to schizophrenia, suggesting that the two disorders may have susceptibility genes in common.

Schizophrenia is a complex neuropsychiatric disorder to which an as-yet-unknown number of genes contribute, interacting with each other and the environment. Linkage analyses have implicated several chromosomal regions as harboring schizophrenia susceptibility loci although rarely at levels commensurate with proposed thresholds for genome-wide significance. We systematically recruited Arab Israeli families multiply affected with schizophrenia from the catchment area of a Regional Mental Health Center. Clinical diagnoses were established by semistructured interviews and all other available sources of information under narrow, core and broad categories. Using 350 microsatellite markers, spaced at an average of 10.3 cM, we performed an autosomal scan in 155 subjects from 21 families. Linkage analysis employed affects only, multipoint, nonparametric (model-free) and also parametric (dominant and recessive) approaches. We detected significant evidence for a schizophrenia susceptibility gene at chromosome 6q23 with a nonparametric LOD score (NPL) of 4.60 (P=0.000004) under the broad diagnostic category and a parametric LOD score of 3.33 (dominant model). Under the core diagnostic category the NPL was 4.29 (P=0.00001) and the LOD score 4.16 (dominant model). We also detected suggestive evidence for linkage at chromosome 10q24 under the broad diagnostic category (NPL 3.24, P=0.0008; heterogeneity LOD score, dominant model 2.65, alpha=0.82). Additionally, NPL scores >2.0 were observed at chromosome 2q37, 4p15-16, 7p22, 9q21-22 and 14q11.1-11.2. The linkage we detected at chromosome 6q23 fulfills the criteria for genome-wide significance and is located approximately midway between loci suggested by a previous significant report at chromosome 6q25 and findings located more centromerically at 6q21-22.

The present study reports a genomewide scan using linkage analysis for risk genes involved in bipolar disorder with 613 microsatellite markers including additional testing of promising regions. As previously published significant linkage was obtained at chromosome 12q24.3 with a two-point parametric lod score of 3.42 at D12S1639 including all members in both families (empirical P-value 0.00004, genome-wide P-value 0.0417). The multipoint parametric lod score at D12S1639 was 3.63 (genome-wide P-value 0.0265). At chromosome 1p22-p21 a parametric, affecteds-only two-point lod score of 2.75 at marker D1S216 was found (empirical P-value 0.0002, genome-wide P-value 0.1622). A three-point lod score of 2.98 (genome-wide P-value 0.1022) at D1S216, and a multipoint non-parametric analysis with a maximum NPL-all score of 17.60 (P-value 0.00079) at D1S216 further supported this finding. A number of additional loci on chromosomes 4p16, 6q14-q22, 10q26 and 16p13.3 yielded parametric lod scores around or above 2.

Molecular Psychiatry publishes work aimed at elucidating biological mechanisms underlying psychiatric disorders and their treatment

Molecular Psychiatry publishes work aimed at elucidating biological mechanisms underlying psychiatric disorders and their treatment

Maternal infections with bacterial or viral agents during pregnancy are associated with an increased incidence of schizophrenia in the offspring at adulthood although little is known about the mechanism by which maternal infection might affect fetal neurodevelopment. Exposure of pregnant rodents to the bacterial endotoxin, lipopolysaccharide (LPS), results in behavioral deficits in the adult offspring that are relevant to schizophrenia. It is however unknown whether these effects are due to the direct action of the inflammatory stimulus on the developing fetus, or due to secondary immune mediators (cytokines) activated at maternal/fetal sites. In this study we sought to elucidate the site of action of LPS, following a single intraperitoneal (i.p.) injection, in pregnant rats at gestation day 18. Animals received 5 muCi of iodinated LPS ((125)I-LPS) and its distribution was assessed in maternal/fetal tissues (1-8 h). In addition, induction of the inflammatory cytokines, TNF-alpha, IL-1beta and IL-6, was measured in maternal/fetal tissues following maternal LPS challenge (0.05 mg/kg, i.p.) (2-8 h). (125)I-LPS was detected in maternal tissues and placenta, but not the fetus. This distribution was accompanied by significant increases in TNF-alpha, IL-1beta and IL-6 in maternal plasma and placenta, but not in fetal liver or brain. A significant increase in IL-1beta was however detected in fetal plasma, possibly due to transfer from the maternal circulation or placenta. Collectively, these data suggest that effects of maternal LPS exposure on the developing fetal brain are not mediated by the direct action of LPS, but via indirect actions at the level of the maternal circulation or placenta.

Bipolar affective disorder is a severe psychiatric disorder with a strong genetic component but unknown pathophysiology. We used microarray technology to determine the expression of approximately 22,000 mRNA transcripts in post-mortem tissue from two brain regions in patients with bipolar disorder and matched healthy controls. Dorsolateral prefrontal cortex tissue from a cohort of 70 subjects and orbitofrontal cortex tissue from a separate cohort of 30 subjects was investigated. The final analysis included 30 bipolar and 31 control subjects for the dorsolateral prefrontal cortex and 10 bipolar and 11 control subjects for the orbitofrontal cortex. Differences between disease and control groups were identified using a rigorous statistical analysis with correction for confounding variables and multiple testing. In the orbitofrontal cortex, 393 differentially expressed transcripts were identified by microarray analysis and a representative subset was validated by quantitative real-time PCR. Pathway analysis revealed significant upregulation of genes involved in G-protein coupled receptor signalling and response to stimulus (in particular the immune response), while genes relating to the ubiquitin cycle and intracellular transport showed coordinated downregulation in bipolar disorder. Additionally, several genes involved in synaptic function were significantly downregulated in bipolar disorder. No significant changes in gene expression were observed in the dorsolateral prefrontal cortex using microarray analysis or quantitative real-time PCR. Our findings implicate the orbitofrontal cortex as a region prominently involved in bipolar disorder and indicate that diverse processes are affected. Overall, our results suggest that dysregulation of the ubiquitin pathway and synaptic function may be central to the disease process.

Drug addiction has been associated with deficits in mesostriatal dopamine (DA) function, but whether this state extends to behavioral addictions such as pathological gambling (PG) is unclear. Here we used positron emission tomography and the D3 receptor-preferring radioligand [(11)C]-(+)-PHNO during a dual-scan protocol to investigate DA release in response to oral amphetamine in pathological gamblers (n=12) and healthy controls (n=11). In contrast with human neuroimaging findings in drug addiction, we report the first evidence that PG is associated with greater DA release in dorsal striatum (54-63% greater [(11)C]-(+)-PHNO displacement) than controls. Importantly, dopaminergic response to amphetamine in gamblers was positively predicted by D3 receptor levels (measured in substantia nigra), and related to gambling severity, allowing for construction of a mechanistic model that could help explain DA contributions to PG. Our results are consistent with a hyperdopaminergic state in PG, and support the hypothesis that dopaminergic sensitization involving D3-related mechanisms might contribute to the pathophysiology of behavioral addictions.Molecular Psychiatry advance online publication, 10 December 2013; doi:10.1038/mp.2013.163.

The human serotonin transporter gene (SLC6A4, 5-HTT) possesses several polymorphic loci that affect its expression or function. Rare gain-of-function coding mutations such as Ile425Val and Gly56Ala have recently been discovered,1, 2 while common noncoding polymorphisms that impact transcription include an intron 2 VNTR and the 5-HTT-linked polymorphic region (5-HTTLPR).3, 4 The latter polymorphism is commonly subdivided into S (short, lesser expressing) and L (long, greater expressing) alleles based on the presence of a 43 bp indel (initially described as 44 bp)3, 5, 6 and has been extensively analyzed in over 300 behavioral, psychiatric, pharmacogenetic and other medical genetics papers over the past 10 years.7, 8

An insertion/deletion polymorphism in the SERT linked promoter region (SERTLPR), previously reported to regulate mRNA expression in vitro, has been associated with mental disorders and response to psychotropic drugs. Contradictory evidence, however, has raised questions about the role of SERTLPR in regulating mRNA expression in vivo. We have used analysis of allelic expression imbalance (AEI) of SERT mRNA to assess quantitatively the contribution of SERTLPR to mRNA expression in human post-mortem pons tissue sections containing serotonergic neurons of the dorsal and median raphe nuclei. Any difference in the expression of one allele over the other indicates the presence of cis-acting elements that differentially affect transcription and/or mRNA processing and turnover. Using a marker SNP in the 3' untranslated region of SERT mRNA, statistically significant differences in allelic mRNA levels were detected in nine out of 29 samples heterozygous for the marker SNP. While the allelic expression differences were relatively small (15-25%), they could nevertheless be physiologically relevant. Although previous results had suggested that the long form of SERTLPR yields higher mRNA levels than the short form, we did not observe a correlation between SERTLPR and allelic expression ratios. Also in contrast to previous results, we found no correlation between SERTLPR and allelic expression ratios or SERT mRNA levels in B-lymphocytes. This study demonstrates that regulation of SERT mRNA is independent of SERTLPR, but could be associated with polymorphisms in partial linkage disequilibrium with SERTLPR.

Very early onset schizophrenia is a psychiatric syndrome in children under 13 years of age that is characterized by a very poor prognosis, due to frequent resistance to treatment.1 We report here the case of a hospitalized 11-year-old child (YP), with a positive diagnosis of very early onset schizophrenia for the past 2 years (positive K-SADS-DSM-IV2), without any previous sign of pervasive developmental disorder. YP experienced verbal auditory hallucinations, a delusion of alien control and hetero-aggressive behaviour. Antipsychotic drugs were unsuccessful and furthermore, provoked severe acute dystonia. A 72-h EEG recording, an anatomical MRI brain scan and a complete set of metabolic analyses, were all negative. However, using data-driven analysis, we observed that YP's functional MRI scan revealed bilateral neural activity in the auditory cortex during auditory verbal hallucinations3 (Figure 1). Ten sessions of fMRI-guided, low frequency (1 Hz), repeated trans-cranial magnetic stimulation (rTMS) over the left temporo-parietal cortex, were successful in stopping the verbal auditory hallucinations (Auditory Hallucination Rating Scale4 -47%). The improvement obtained with rTMS was maintained by repeating the sessions every 5 weeks. The clinical improvement was confirmed by a significant improvement of adaptative functions (Children's Global Assessment Scale5 +40%), and the fact that YP was able to go back home and attend school. Thereby, YP was able to receive education about his illness and to follow regular psychotherapeutic sessions. rTMS has been used for hallucinations in adults,4 and in children with attentional deficits and hyperactivity.6 To our knowledge, however, this is the first published case demonstrating the efficacy of fMRI-guided rTMS in the treatment of verbal auditory hallucinations in a child with schizophrenia. These results require replication.

In a search for novel genes on chromosome 18 (HC18), on which several regions have been linked to bipolar disorder, we applied exon trapping to HC18-specific cosmids. Among the 1138 exons trapped, 1052 of them have been mapped to HC18, and the remaining 86 have not been localized. No exons were localized to genomic regions other than HC18. BLAST database search revealed that 190 exons were identical to 98 Unigenes on HC18; 98 identical to additional 82 clusters of ESTs not present in the HC18 Unigene set; 39 homologous to genes from human and other species (e<10(-3)); and the remaining 811 exons had no significant homology to transcripts in public databases. The mapped exons were compared to the 867 annotated genes on HC18 in the Celera databases; 216 exons were identical to 104 Celera 'genes' and the remaining 836 exons were not found in the Celera databases. On average, there were two exons for a matched transcript (known genes and ESTs). Therefore, the 850 novel exons may represent hundreds of novel genes on chromosome 18.

This review introduces the concepts that multiple actions of lithium are critical for its therapeutic effect, and that these complex effects stabilize neuronal activities, support neural plasticity, and provide neuroprotection. Three interacting systems appear most critical. (i) Modulation of neurotransmitters by lithium likely readjusts balances between excitatory and inhibitory activities, and decreased glutamatergic activity may contribute to neuroprotection. (ii) Lithium modulates signals impacting on the cytoskeleton, a dynamic system contributing to neural plasticity, at multiple levels, including glycogen synthase kinase-3beta, cyclic AMP-dependent kinase, and protein kinase C, which may be critical for the neural plasticity involved in mood recovery and stabilization. (iii) Lithium adjusts signaling activities regulating second messengers, transcription factors, and gene expression. The outcome of these effects appears likely to result in limiting the magnitudes of fluctuations in activities, contributing to a stabilizing influence induced by lithium, and neuroprotective effects may be derived from its modulation of gene expression.

The caudate is a subcortical brain structure implicated in many common neurological and psychiatric disorders. To identify specific genes associated with variations in caudate volume, structural magnetic resonance imaging and genome-wide genotypes were acquired from two large cohorts, the Alzheimer's Disease NeuroImaging Initiative (ADNI; N=734) and the Brisbane Adolescent/Young Adult Longitudinal Twin Study (BLTS; N=464). In a preliminary analysis of heritability, around 90% of the variation in caudate volume was due to genetic factors. We then conducted genome-wide association to find common variants that contribute to this relatively high heritability. Replicated genetic association was found for the right caudate volume at single-nucleotide polymorphism rs163030 in the ADNI discovery sample (P=2.36 × 10⁻⁶) and in the BLTS replication sample (P=0.012). This genetic variation accounted for 2.79 and 1.61% of the trait variance, respectively. The peak of association was found in and around two genes, WDR41 and PDE8B, involved in dopamine signaling and development. In addition, a previously identified mutation in PDE8B causes a rare autosomal-dominant type of striatal degeneration. Searching across both samples offers a rigorous way to screen for genes consistently influencing brain structure at different stages of life. Variants identified here may be relevant to common disorders affecting the caudate.

Serotonergic dysfunction may contribute to negative mood states in affective disorders. Some in vivo imaging studies showed reduced availability of serotonin transporters (5-HTT) in the brainstem and thalamus of patients with major depression. We tested the hypothesis that 5-HTT availability is reduced in unmedicated unipolar patients with major depression compared to healthy control subjects matched for gender, age, genotype and smoking status. Availability of 5-HTT was measured in vivo with positron emission tomography and [(11)C]-3-amino-4-(2-dimethylaminomethyl-phenylsulfanyl)-benzonitrile (DASB) in the midbrain, thalamus and amygdala. DASB binding was correlated with the severity of depression (Beck's Depression Inventory), anxiety (Spielberger's State-Trait Anxiety Inventory) and personality traits (Temperament and Character Inventory). Patients with major depression displayed reduced 5-HTT availability in the thalamus (P=0.005). In patients, low serotonin transporter availability correlated with high anxiety (thalamus: r=-0.78, P=0.004; midbrain: r=-0.78, P=0.004; amygdala: r=-0.80, P=0.003). Correlations with severity of depression were weaker and did not survive correction for multiple testing. These results support the hypothesis that central serotonergic dysfunction is associated with negative mood states in affective disorders. In the thalamus, a low serotonin reuptake capacity may interfere with thalamic control of cortical excitability and contribute to anxiety rather than depression per se in major depression.

Identification of a biomarker that can inform on extracellular serotonin (5-HT) levels in the brains of living humans would enable greater understanding of the way brain circuits are modulated by serotonergic neurotransmission. Substantial evidence from studies in animals and humans indicates an inverse relationship between central 5-HT tonus and 5-HT type 4 receptor (5-HT4R) density, suggesting that 5-HT4R receptor density may be a biomarker marker for 5-HT tonus. Here, we investigated whether a 3-week administration of a selective serotonin reuptake inhibitor, expected to increase brain 5-HT levels, is associated with a decline in brain 5-HT4R binding. A total of 35 healthy men were studied in a placebo-controlled, randomized, double-blind study. Participants were assigned to receive 3 weeks of oral dosing with placebo or fluoxetine, 40 mg per day. Brain 5-HT4R binding was quantified at baseline and at follow-up with [(11)C]SB207145 positron emission tomography (PET). Three weeks of intervention with fluoxetine was associated with a 5.2% reduction in brain 5-HT4R binding (P=0.017), whereas placebo intervention did not change 5-HT4R binding (P=0.52). Our findings are consistent with a model, wherein the 5-HT4R density adjusts to changes in the extracellular 5-HT tonus. Our data demonstrate for the first time in humans that the imaging of central 5-HT4R binding may be used as an in vivo biomarker of the central 5-HT tonus.Molecular Psychiatry advance online publication, 5 November 2013; doi:10.1038/mp.2013.147.

A common polymorphism (val158met) in the gene encoding catechol-O-methyltransferase (COMT) has been shown to affect dopamine (DA) tone in cortex and cortical functioning. D1 receptors are the main DA receptors in the cortex, and studies have shown that decreased levels of cortical DA are associated with upregulation of D1 receptor availability, as measured with the positron-emission tomography (PET) radiotracer [11C]NNC112. We compared [11C]NNC 112 binding in healthy volunteers homozygous for the Val allele compared with Met carriers. Subjects were otherwise matched for parameters known to affect [11C]NNC 112 binding. Subjects with Val/Val alleles had significantly higher cortical [11C]NNC 112 binding compared with Met carriers, but did not differ in striatal binding. These results confirm the prominent role of COMT in regulating DA transmission in cortex but not striatum, and the reliability of [11C]NNC 112 as a marker for low DA tone as previously suggested by studies in patients with schizophrenia.

Molecular Psychiatry publishes work aimed at elucidating biological mechanisms underlying psychiatric disorders and their treatment

Since the introduction of chlorpromazine and throughout the development of the new-generation antipsychotic drugs (APDs) beginning with clozapine, the D(2) receptor has been the target for the development of APDs. Pharmacologic actions to reduce neurotransmission through the D(2) receptor have been the only proven therapeutic mechanism for psychoses. A number of novel non-D(2) mechanisms of action of APDs have been explored over the past 40 years but none has definitively been proven effective. At the same time, the effectiveness of treatments and range of outcomes for patients are far from satisfactory. The relative success of antipsychotics in treating positive symptoms is limited by the fact that a substantial number of patients are refractory to current medications and by their lack of efficacy for negative and cognitive symptoms, which often determine the level of functional impairment. In addition, while the newer antipsychotics produce fewer motor side effects, safety and tolerability concerns about weight gain and endocrinopathies have emerged. Consequently, there is an urgent need for more effective and better-tolerated antipsychotic agents, and to identify new molecular targets and develop mechanistically novel compounds that can address the various symptom dimensions of schizophrenia. In recent years, a variety of new experimental pharmacological approaches have emerged, including compounds acting on targets other than the dopamine D(2) receptor. However, there is still an ongoing debate as to whether drugs selective for singe molecular targets (that is, 'magic bullets') or drugs selectively non-selective for several molecular targets (that is, 'magic shotguns', 'multifunctional drugs' or 'intramolecular polypharmacy') will lead to more effective new medications for schizophrenia. In this context, current and future drug development strategies can be seen to fall into three categories: (1) refinement of precedented mechanisms of action to provide drugs of comparable or superior efficacy and side-effect profiles to existing APDs; (2) development of novel (and presumably non-D(2)) mechanism APDs; (3) development of compounds to be used as adjuncts to APDs to augment efficacy by targeting specific symptom dimensions of schizophrenia and particularly those not responsive to traditional APD treatment. In addition, efforts are being made to determine if the products of susceptibility genes in schizophrenia, identified by genetic linkage and association studies, may be viable targets for drug development. Finally, a focus on early detection and early intervention aimed at halting or reversing progressive pathophysiological processes in schizophrenia has gained great influence. This has encouraged future drug development and therapeutic strategies that are neuroprotective. This article provides an update and critical review of the pharmacology and clinical profiles of current APDs and drugs acting on novel targets with potential to be therapeutic agents in the future.Molecular Psychiatry advance online publication, 15 May 2012; doi:10.1038/mp.2012.47.

It is generally accepted that proportionally high-fat diet results in increased body fat content, which is one of the key factors of cardiovascular diseases. However, exaggeration of carbohydrate intake may lead to similar outcome as excessive sugars are transformed and stored as lipids. Carbohydrate metabolism is influenced to a great extent by consumption of exogenous sugar and secretion of insulin. Adrenoreceptors form the interface between catecholamines and a wide array of target cells in the body to mediate signals in the sympathetic nervous system. It has been shown that the C-1291G polymorphism in the promoter region of the gene coding the 2A-adrenoceptor (ADRA2A) influences fasting glucose levels1 and is also important in insulin secretion.2 The possibility that there might be a genetic basis for food preference was recently highlighted by the finding that a polymorphism of a serotonin receptor gene is associated with higher consumption of beef and essential amino acids.3 Therefore, we tested the hypothesis that the ADRA2A C-1291G polymorphism is associated with glucose levels and consumption of sweet food products.

Autism is a common neurodevelopmental disorder with a significant genetic component and locus heterogeneity. To date, 12 microsatellite genome screens have been performed using various data sets of sib-pair families (parents and affected children) resulting in numerous regions of potential linkage across the genome. However, no universal region or consistent candidate gene from these regions has emerged. The use of large, extended pedigrees is a recognized powerful approach to identify significant linkage results, as these families potentially contain more potential linkage information than sib-pair families. A genome-wide linkage analysis was performed on 26 extended autism families (65 affected, 184 total individuals). Each family had two to four affected individuals comprised of either avuncular or cousin pairs. For analysis, we used a high-density single-nucleotide polymorphism genotyping assay, the Affymetrix GeneChip Human Mapping 10K array. Two-point analysis gave peak heterogeneity limit of detection (HLOD) of 2.82 at rs2877739 on chromosome 14q. Suggestive linkage evidence (HLOD>2) from a two-point analysis was also found on chromosomes 1q, 2q, 5q, 6p,11q and 12q. Chromosome 12q was the only region showing significant linkage evidence by multipoint analysis with a peak HLOD=3.02 at rs1445442. In addition, this linkage evidence was enhanced significantly in the families with only male affected (multipoint HLOD=4.51), suggesting a significant gender-specific effect in the etiology of autism. Chromosome-wide haplotype analyses on chromosome 12 localized the potential autism gene to a 4 cM region shared among the affected individuals across linked families. This novel linkage peak on chromosome 12q further supports the hypothesis of substantial locus heterogeneity in autism.

We introduced a new genotyping method, fluorescence resonance energy transfer-based melting curve analysis on the LightCycler, for the analysis of the gene, DUSP6 (dual specificity MAP kinase phosphatase 6), in affective disorder patients. The DUSP6 gene is located on chromosome 12q22-23, which overlaps one of the reported bipolar disorder susceptibility loci. Because of its role in intracellular signalling pathways, the gene may be involved in the pathogenesis of affective disorders not only on the basis of its position but also of its function. We performed association analysis using a T>G polymorphism that gives rise to a missense mutation (Leu114Val). No evidence for a significant disease-causing effect was found in Japanese unipolars (n = 132) and bipolars (n = 122), when compared with controls (n = 299). More importantly, this study demonstrates that melting curve analysis on the LightCycler is an accurate, rapid and robust method for discriminating genotypes from biallelic markers. This strategy has the potential for use in high throughput scanning for and genotyping of single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs).

A number of studies have strongly suggested a susceptibility locus for bipolar affective disorder on chromosome 12q24. The present study investigates for a shared chromosomal segment among distantly related patients with bipolar affective disorder from the Faroe Islands, using 17 microsatellite markers covering 24 cM in the previously suggested region on chromosome 12q24. D12S342 showed possible allelic association to bipolar affective disorder (P-value using CLUMP below 0.01). Increased sharing among cases of two-marker haplotypes were suggested at D12S1614--D12S342 (P-values using CLUMP below 0.01), and D12S2075--D12S1675 (P-values using CLUMP around 0.001). The region of most interest is around 6 cM and bounded by markers D12S1614 and D12S1675 as suggested by the interesting two-marker haplotypes. This area contains the minimum interesting region between D12S342 and D12S1658 suggested by the previously reported haplotypes in the two Danish families with bipolar affective disorder.

Evidence both from animal and human studies suggests that common polymorphisms in the oxytocin receptor (OXTR) gene are likely candidates to confer risk for autism spectrum disorders (ASD). In lower mammals, oxytocin is important in a wide range of social behaviors, and recent human studies have shown that administration of oxytocin modulates behavior in both clinical and non-clinical groups. Additionally, two linkage studies and two recent association investigations also underscore a possible role for the OXTR gene in predisposing to ASD. We undertook a comprehensive study of all 18 tagged SNPs across the entire OXTR gene region identified using HapMap data and the Haploview algorithm. Altogether 152 subjects diagnosed with ASDs (that is, DSM IV autistic disorder or pervasive developmental disorder--NOS) from 133 families were genotyped (parents and affected siblings). Both individual SNPs and haplotypes were tested for association using family-based association tests as provided in the UNPHASED set of programs. Significant association with single SNPs and haplotypes (global P-values <0.05, following permutation test adjustment) were observed with ASD. Association was also observed with IQ and the Vineland Adaptive Behavior Scales (VABS). In particular, a five-locus haplotype block (rs237897-rs13316193-rs237889-rs2254298-rs2268494) was significantly associated with ASD (nominal global P=0.000019; adjusted global P=0.009) and a single haplotype (carried by 7% of the population) within that block showed highly significant association (P=0.00005). This is the third association study, in a third ethnic group, showing that SNPs and haplotypes in the OXTR gene confer risk for ASD. The current investigation also shows association with IQ and total VABS scores (as well as the communication, daily living skills and socialization subdomains), suggesting that this gene shapes both cognition and daily living skills that may cross diagnostic boundaries.

We report the first stage of a genome scan of schizophrenia (SZ) and bipolar disorder (BP) covering 18 candidate chromosomal areas. In addition to testing susceptibility loci that are specific to each disorder, we tested the hypothesis that some susceptibility loci might be common to both disorders. A total of 480 individuals from 21 multigenerational pedigrees of Eastern Québec were evaluated by means of a consensus best-estimate diagnosis made blind to diagnoses in relatives and were genotyped with 220 microsatellite markers. Two-point and multipoint model-based linkage analyses were performed and mod scores (Z, for max Z(max)) are reported. The strongest linkage signals were detected at D18S1145 (in 18q12; Z = 4.03) for BP, and at D6S334 (in 6p 22-24; Z(het) = 3.47; alpha = 0.66) for SZ. Three other chromosomal areas (3q, 10p, and 21q) yielded linkage signals. Chromosomes 3p, 4p, 5p, 5q, 6q, 8p, 9q, 11q, 11p, 12q, 13q, 18p and 22q showed no evidence of linkage. The 18q12 results met the Lander and Kruglyak (1995) criterion for a genome-wide significant linkage and suggested that this susceptibility region may be shared by SZ and BP. The 6p finding provided confirmatory evidence of linkage for SZ. Our results suggest that both specific and common susceptibility loci must be searched for SZ and BP.

A homozygous mutation of the CNTNAP2 gene has been associated with a syndrome of focal epilepsy, mental retardation, language regression and other neuropsychiatric problems in children of the Old Order Amish community. Here we report genomic rearrangements resulting in haploinsufficiency of the CNTNAP2 gene in association with epilepsy and schizophrenia. Genomic deletions of varying sizes affecting the CNTNAP2 gene were identified in three non-related Caucasian patients. In contrast, we did not observe any dosage variation for this gene in 512 healthy controls. Moreover, this genomic region has not been identified as showing large-scale copy number variation. Our data thus confirm an association of CNTNAP2 to epilepsy outside the Old Order Amish population and suggest that dosage alteration of this gene may lead to a complex phenotype of schizophrenia, epilepsy and cognitive impairment.

Autism spectrum disorder (ASD) is conceptualized as a spectrum of related diagnostic categories, comprising subtypes: autism, atypical autism, Asperger's syndrome and other pervasive developmental disorders (ICD-10). Available evidence suggests that several genes contribute to the underlying genetic risk for the development of ASD. However, etiologic and phenotypic heterogeneity impede the discovery of ASD-susceptibility genes. We tested 148 simplex UK families, characterized by both ADI-R and ADOS to have an autism spectrum disorder (ASD), for association with candidate genes, GABRB3, GABRG3, UBE3A and ATP10C, on chromosome 15q11–13. A dense map of single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) that had not been previously parsed in autism, spaced on average by 13 kb, were genotyped across each gene. We found evidence for an association with GABRB3 and ASD. A haplotype analysis of five adjacent SNPs in high linkage disequilibrium (LD) on GABRB3 was significant with a Bonferroni-corrected P-value of 0.00013 for haplotypes of frequency >1% (99.9% of all possible haplotypes covered were represented by seven haplotypes). Further systematic examination of GABRB3 in relation to ASD is required.

Individuals with low socioeconomic position have high rates of depression; however, it is not clear whether this reflects higher incidence or longer persistence of disorder. Past research focused on high-risk samples, and risk factors of long-term depression in the population are less well known. Our aim was to test the hypothesis that socioeconomic position predicts depression trajectory over 13 years of follow-up in a community sample. We studied 12 650 individuals participating in the French GAZEL study. Depression was assessed by the Center for Epidemiological Studies-Depression scale in 1996, 1999, 2002, 2005 and 2008. These five assessments served to estimate longitudinal depression trajectories (no depression, decreasing depression, intermediate/increasing depression, persistent depression). Socioeconomic position was measured by occupational grade. Covariates included year of birth, marital status, tobacco smoking, alcohol consumption, body mass index, negative life events and preexisting psychological and non-psychological health problems. Data were analyzed using multinomial regression, separately in men and women. Overall, participants in intermediate and low occupational grades were significantly more likely than those in high grades to have an unfavorable depression trajectory and to experience persistent depression (age-adjusted ORs: respectively 1.40, 95% confidence interval (CI) 1.16-1.70 and 2.65, 95% CI 2.04-3.45 in men, 2.48, 95% CI 1.36-4.54 and 4.53, 95% CI 2.38-8.63 in women). In multivariate models, the socioeconomic gradient in long-term depression decreased by 21-59% in men and women. Long-term depression trajectories appear to follow a socioeconomic gradient; therefore, efforts aiming to reduce the burden of depression should address the needs of the whole population rather than exclusively focus on high-risk groups.Molecular Psychiatry advance online publication, 20 September 2011; doi:10.1038/mp.2011.116.