Mindfulness

The factor structure and psychometric properties of the Dutch version of the Mindful Attention Awareness Scale for Adolescents (MAAS-A) was studied in a sample of adolescents (n = 717; age range, 11-17 years) of the general population. The MAAS-A and other questionnaires measuring other constructs were administered in high schools across the Netherlands. A one-factor structure was demonstrated using principal component analysis and was further confirmed using confirmatory factor analysis. The MAAS-A was shown to have high internal consistency. Expected negative correlations between mindfulness and self-reported stress and emotion regulation strategies such as rumination and catastrophizing were found. Further, mindfulness was positively correlated with happiness, healthy self-regulation, and with another recently developed measure of mindfulness in children and adolescents, the Child and Adolescent Mindfulness Measure. Mindfulness as measured by the MAAS-A correlated positively with quality of life, but an expected positive relationship with acceptance was not found. Interestingly, adolescents without meditation experience scored higher on the MAAS-A than adolescents without this experience. Further, adolescents with chronic disorders scored lower on the MAAS-A than adolescents without these disorders. Overall, this study has shown evidence of the first valid and reliable Dutch measure of mindfulness for adolescents. The factor structure, internal consistency, and convergent and divergent validity as well as their relationship to quality of life are comparable to the original MAAS-A.

There has been a groundswell of interest in the UK in Mindfulness-Based Stress Reduction (MBSR) and its derivatives, particularly Mindfulness-Based Cognitive Therapy (MBCT). Many health, education and social work practitioners have sought ways to develop their competencies as mindfulness-based teachers, and increasing numbers of organisations are developing mindfulness-based training programmes. However, the rapid expansion of interest in mindfulness-based approaches has meant that those people offering training for MBSR and MBCT teachers have had to consider some quite fundamental questions about training processes, standards and competence. They also need to consider how to develop a robust professional context for the next generation of mindfulness-based teachers. The ways in which competencies are addressed in the secular mainstream contexts in which MBSR and MBCT are taught are examined to enable a consideration of the particularities of mindfulness-based teaching competence. A framework suggesting how competencies develop in trainees is presented. The current status of methodologies for assessing competencies used in mindfulness-based training and research programmes is reviewed. We argue that the time is ripe to continue to develop these dialogues across the international community of mindfulness-based trainers and teachers.

We investigated state effects of two forms of meditation on electroencephalography prefrontal α-asymmetry, a global indicator of approach versus withdrawal motivation and related affective state. A clinical series of previously depressed individuals were guided to practice either mindfulness breathing meditation (N = 8) or a form of meditation directly aimed at cultivating positive affect, loving kindness or metta meditation (N = 7). Prefrontal asymmetry was assessed directly before and after the 15-min meditation period. Results showed changes in asymmetry towards stronger relative left prefrontal activation, i.e., stronger approach tendencies, regardless of condition. Further explorations of these findings suggested that responses were moderated by participants' tendencies to engage in ruminative brooding. Individuals high in brooding tended to respond to breathing meditation but not loving kindness meditation, while those low in brooding showed the opposite pattern. Comparisons with an additionally recruited "rest" group provided evidence suggesting that changes seen were not simply attributable to habituation. The results indicate that both forms of meditation practice can have beneficial state effects on prefrontal α-asymmetry and point towards differential indications for offering them in the treatment of previously depressed patients.

Though relatively new to Western psychological and spiritual cultures, mindfulness training is becoming more widespread in the general public and is beginning to show promise therapeutically for maladies ranging from generalized stress to specific addictions. However, difficulties remain both with individuals being able to learn core concepts and techniques, such as concentration meditation, and more broadly, with treatment interventions not being optimized to helping individuals learn these. In this manuscript, we examine possible contributing factors to these difficulties. We bring together what is known scientifically about basic learning processes such as operant conditioning with some inspirational suggestions drawn from the early Buddhist dialogues collected in the Theravada Buddhist cannon, in particular the description of seven psychological factors known as "the factors of awakening". Bringing together scientific and textual suggestions, we give an overview of how primary operant conditioning processes lead to stress, and importantly, how a minor shift in emphasis in providing mindfulness training may indeed co-opt these very processes for the reduction and cessation of stress and suffering. Finally, we provide suggestions as to how these can be tracked individually and clinically over time.

The objective of this cross-sectional study was to assess group differences between veterans with and without posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) in mindful awareness and mindful non-judging. The relationships between mindfulness and PTSD symptom clusters were also evaluated. Three age and gender-matched groups, 1)15 combat veterans with PTSD, 2)15 combat veterans without PTSD, and 3) 15 non-combat veterans without PTSD, completed the Mindful Attention Awareness Scale and the Accept without Judgment scale. PTSD status was determined with the Clinician Administered PTSD Scale and excluded disorders screened with the Structured Clinical Interview for DSM-IV. Mindfulness scale group differences were assessed with analysis of variance. Mindfulness and the PTSD symptom clusters relationships were assessed with hierarchical regression analysis. There were group differences on mindful non-judging (F(2,44)=7.22, p=.002) but not mindful awareness (p>.05). Combat exposure accounted for significant variation in PTSD symptoms (hyper-arousal 47%; numbing-avoiding 32%; re-experiencing 23%). Mindfulness accounted for a significant percentage variance of PTSD symptoms (re-experiencing 32%; numbing-avoiding 19%, hyper-arousal 16%), beyond combat exposure effects, although only mindful non-judging was significant in the model. This study confirms in a clinical sample that mindful non-judging is associated with PTSD symptoms and could represent a meaningful focus for treatment.

We examined the interrelationships between higher-order cognitive functions-mindfulness, self-control, and working memory-that appear to be component processes that underlie executive function (EF) and their association with indicators of mental and behavioral health. Data were collected from first-year medical students attending a large private university in California (N=31) via a computer-based questionnaire which was administered via email hyperlink. Results indicate that self-control schedule (SCS) scores were significantly correlated with the negative dimension of positive and negative affect schedule scores (r=-0.59, p<0.05), psychological well-being scale scores (r=0.46, p<0.05), and mindful attention awareness scale (MAAS) scores (r=0.35, p≤0.10). The planful behavior dimension of the SCS was correlated with MAAS scores (r=0.38, p<0.10), automated operation span task scores (r=0.51, p<0.05), and total SCS scores (r=0.72, p<0.01). Large and significant inverse correlations were found between current meditation practice and alcohol use (r=-0.56, p<0.05) and AUDIT scores (r=-0.48, p<0.05). Findings from this pilot study suggest that an overlap exists between some component processes of EF; however, the majority of variance in the components is not shared. Moreover, these higher-order cognitive processes appear to have protective relationships with substance use and are positively associated with self-reported meditation practice.

A core component of mindfulness is non-judgmental observation of internal and external stimuli. The present study investigated the effect of mindfulness on memory for emotional stimuli. Participants were exposed to a brief mindfulness intervention and subsequently performed a verbal learning test consisting of positive, neutral, and negative words. Control participants received no intervention and directly performed the verbal learning test. After 20 min, participants recalled as many words as possible. Participants in the mindfulness condition remembered a significantly lower proportion of negative words compared to control participants. No differences between both groups were observed for the proportion of remembered positive words. These findings suggest that memory processes may be a potential mechanism underlying the link between mindfulness and subjective well-being.

The purpose of this study was to examine pathways in a model which proposed associations among parent mindfulness, parent depressive symptoms, two types of parenting, and child problem behavior. Participants' data were from the baseline assessment of a NIMH-sponsored Family-Group Cognitive-Behavioral intervention program (FGCB) for the prevention of child and adolescent depression (Compas et al., 2009). Participants consisted of 145 mothers and 17 fathers (mean age = 41.89 yrs, SD = 7.73) with a history of depression and 211 children (106 males) (mean age = 11.49 yrs, SD = 2.00). Analyses showed that (a) positive parenting appears to play a significant role in helping explain how parent depressive symptoms relate to child externalizing problems and (b) mindfulness is related to child internalizing and externalizing problems; however, the intervening constructs examined did not appear to help explain the mindfulness-child problem behavior associations. Suggestions for future research on parent mindfulness and child problem outcome are described.

Conditional goal setting (CGS, the tendency to regard high order goals such as happiness, as conditional upon the achievement of lower order goals) is observed in individuals with depression and recent research has suggested a link between levels of dispositional mindfulness and conditional goal setting in depressed patients. Since interventions which aim to increase mindfulness through training in meditation are used with patients suffering from depression it is of interest to examine whether such interventions might alter CGS. Study 1 examined the correlation between changes in dispositional mindfulness and changes in CGS over a 3-4 month period in patients participating in a pilot randomised controlled trial of Mindfulness-Based Cognitive Therapy (MBCT). Results indicated that increases in dispositional mindfulness were significantly associated with decreases in CGS, although this effect could not be attributed specifically to the group who had received training in meditation. Study 2 explored the impact of brief periods of either breathing or loving kindness meditation on CGS in 55 healthy participants. Contrary to expectation, a brief period of meditation increased CGS. Further analyses indicated that this effect was restricted to participants low in goal re-engagement ability who were allocated to loving kindness meditation. Longer term changes in dispositional mindfulness are associated with reductions in CGS in patients with depressed mood. However initial reactions to meditation, and in particular loving kindness meditation, may be counterintuitive and further research is required in order to determine the relationship between initial reactions and longer-term benefits of meditation practice.

Several randomised controlled trials suggest that mindfulness-based approaches are helpful in preventing depressive relapse and recurrence, and the UK Government's National Institute for Health and Clinical Excellence has recommended these interventions for use in the National Health Service. There are good grounds to suggest that mindfulness-based approaches are also helpful with anxiety disorders and a range of chronic physical health problems, and there is much clinical and research interest in applying mindfulness approaches to other populations and problems such as people with personality disorders, substance abuse, and eating disorders. We review the UK context for developments in mindfulness-based approaches and set out criteria for mindfulness teacher competence and training steps, as well as some of the challenges and future directions that can be anticipated in ensuring that evidence-based mindfulness approaches are available in health care and other settings.

Scientific knowledge of human health continues to grow substantially through publication in empirical journals. These journals, which serve as the warehouses of scientific knowledge, continue to publish vast amounts of empirical information. This abundance of information, which promotes an understanding of and advances in human health, is also a precursor of information overload that can result in unintended and negative effects in both empirical and applied fields. Researchers and practitioners also struggle with this abundance as they are often pressured by an inability to stay abreast with the vast influx of current information. I offer a brief discussion of a new paradigm to manage empirical health information. The Mindfulness Research Guide serves as a case example for use as a publicly available specialized electronic information management system that endeavors to manage, organize, centralize, and deliver a wide range of information on a specific health construct-mindfulness. As empirical information continues to accumulate and guide our knowledge of human health at an unprecedented pace, new information management paradigms such as the Mindfulness Research Guide will be needed to organize, maintain, and deliver information in an easily accessible and timely fashion.

Mindfulness meditation (MM) has often been suggested to induce fundamental changes in the way events in life are experienced and dealt with, presumably leading to alterations in personality. However, the relationship between the practice of MM and personality has not been systematically studied. The aim of this study was to explore this relationship and to investigate the mediating role of mindfulness skills. Thirty-five experienced mindfulness meditators (age range, 31-75 years; meditation experience range, 0.25-35 years; mean, ∼13 years) and 35 age-, gender-, and ethnicity-matched controls (age range, 27-63 years) without any meditation experience completed a personality (NEO-FFI) and mindfulness (KIMS) questionnaire. The practice of MM was positively related to openness and extraversion and negatively related to neuroticism and conscientiousness. Thus, the results of the current study associate the practice of MM with higher levels of curiosity and receptivity to new experiences and experience of positive affect and with less proneness toward negative emotions and worrying and a reduced focus on achievements. Furthermore, the mediating role of specific mindfulness skills in the relationship between the practice of MM and personality traits was shown.

Support staff in intellectual disability services may experience significant work-related stress. This stress has been shown to be associated with avoidance processes, and theoretical models of aspects of support staff behavior have also implicated escape and avoidance processes. In the present paper, we review the case for the match between acceptance and mindfulness-based approaches and the work experiences of support staff. We also report data from 34 support staff who received the Promotion of Acceptance in Carers and Teachers (PACT) intervention. Staff reported less psychological distress post-PACT even though the perceived level of stress in the work environment did not reduce. Positive change was greatest for those staff without a professional qualification and who were reporting more stress at pre-intervention. Combined with other published data, these results suggest that support staff in intellectual disability settings may benefit from acceptance and mindfulness-based interventions. KeywordsAcceptance-Mindfulness-Support staff-Intellectual disability-Promotion of Acceptance in Carers and Teachers (PACT)

We examined the role of non-judgmental acceptance in the relation between posttraumatic stress symptom severity and marijuana use coping motives. These relations were examined among 97 (46 women) adults (M age = 21.57years, SD = 6.32) who met DSM-IV-defined PTSD Criterion A for at least one traumatic event exposure and reported using marijuana in the past 30days. Consistent with expectation, greater levels of posttraumatic stress symptom severity were associated with greater levels of coping-oriented marijuana use motives, as well as lower levels of non-judgmental acceptance. Furthermore, non-judgmental acceptance was inversely associated with coping-oriented marijuana use motives. Finally, non-judgmental acceptance was found to partially mediate the association between posttraumatic stress symptom severity and marijuana use coping motives. Results are discussed in terms of better understanding the role of non-judgmental acceptance in coping-oriented marijuana use among trauma-exposed populations. KeywordsTrauma-Posttraumatic stress-Acceptance-Marijuana-Coping

Based on promising results with adults, Acceptance and Commitment Therapy (ACT) presents as a treatment opportunity for depressed adolescents. We present a pilot study that compares ACT with treatment as usual (TAU), using random allocation of participants who were clinically referred to a psychiatric outpatient service. Participants were 30 adolescents, aged M = 14.9 (SD = 2.55), with 73.6% in the clinical range for depression. At posttreatment on measures of depression participants in the ACT condition showed significantly greater improvement statistically (d = 0.38), and 58% showed clinically reliable change with a response ratio of 1.59 in favor of ACT. Outcomes from 3-month follow-up data are tentative due to small numbers but suggest that improvement increased in magnitude. Measures of global functioning showed statistically significant improvement for both conditions, although clinical change measures favored only the ACT condition. The results support conducting a larger trial of ACT for the treatment of adolescent depression. KeywordsAcceptance and Commitment Therapy–Adolescent psychopathology–Adolescent depression

We report the results of a quasi-experimental study evaluating the effectiveness of the Mindfulness Education (ME) program. ME is a theoretically derived, teacher-taught universal preventive intervention that focuses on facilitating the development of social and emotional competence and positive emotions, and has as its cornerstone daily lessons in which students engage in mindful attention training (three times a day). Pre- and early adolescent students in the 4th to 7th grades (N = 246) drawn from six ME program classrooms and six comparison classrooms (wait-list controls) completed pretest and posttest self-report measures assessing optimism, general and school self-concept, and positive and negative affect. Teachers rated pre- and early adolescents on dimensions of classroom social and emotional competence. Results revealed that pre- and early adolescents who participated in the ME program, compared to those who did not, showed significant increases in optimism from pretest to posttest. Similarly, improvements on dimensions of teacher-rated classroom social competent behaviors were found favoring ME program students. Program effects also were found for self-concept, although the ME program demonstrated more positive benefits for preadolescents than for early adolescents. Teacher reports of implementation fidelity and dosage for the mindfulness activities were high and teachers reported that they were easily able to integrate the mindful attention exercises within their classrooms. Theoretical issues linking mindful attention awareness to social and emotional competence and implications for the development of school-based interventions are discussed. KeywordsMindfulness-Adolescents-Prevention-Optimism-Social competence

We examined specific mindfulness skills (observing, describing, acting with awareness, accepting without judgment, as measured by the Kentucky Inventory of Mindfulness Skills, in terms of anxiety-related cognitive processes among adult daily smokers (n = 90; 43 females; Mage = 26.6 years, SD = 11.8). Partially consistent with hypotheses, describing and accepting without judgment were each shown to significantly predict perceived control over anxiety-related events. The observed significant effects were evident above and beyond the variance accounted for by gender, smoking rate, and negative affectivity. Although observing also was shown to significantly predict agoraphobic cognition, it was in the opposite direction as was theoretically expected. No evidence of incremental validity for mindfulness skills was evident for anxiety sensitivity. These data highlight the potential explanatory relevance of only specific mindfulness skills in terms of only certain anxiety-based cognitive processes among adult daily smokers. KeywordsMindfulness–Anxiety–Smoking–Cognitions–Panic-related vulnerability

While mindfulness meditation has been associated with enhanced attentional abilities, the consequences of loving-kindness meditation for attention have not previously been investigated. We examined the trait and state effects of 8weeks of training in loving-kindness meditation (LKM) on the attentional blink. The attentional blink is a period of time in which a target stimulus is less likely to be detected if it follows too quickly (approximately 500ms) after a previously detected target. For the two experiments reported here, a group of participants trained in LKM by meditating for approximately 15min per day, four days per week, for 8weeks. Experiment 1 utilized a pre-post design, with a non-meditating control group, to examine whether this training reduced the attentional blink. No differences were found. However, in an exploratory analysis, meditators did exhibit increases in two facets of mindfulness measured by the Five Facet Mindfulness Questionnaire: observation and descriptiveness. In experiment 2, we tested for a state effect of LKM by having trained meditators practice LKM immediately prior to the attentional blink task. Here, meditators had a significantly reduced blink size compared to control participants. To establish that this reduction was caused by the combination of LKM training with pre-task meditation, we analyzed the data in experiment 2 with respect to one of our previous works, which reported that the practice of LKM immediately prior to the attentional blink task in those without meditation training did not reduce the blink magnitude. This analysis also revealed a significant difference. Therefore, training in LKM, coupled with its practice immediately prior to an attention task, caused a state reduction in the attentional blink. These results are the first to demonstrate that LKM, an emotion-focused practice, influences cognitive processing. KeywordsMeditation–Loving-kindness–Metta–Attentional blink–Mindfulness

Mindfulness-based interventions have been incorporated into a variety of psychotherapies. Attentional disruptions are common in many mental disorders, and it seems generally accepted that practicing mindfulness enhances attention. We tested the hypothesis that mindfulness training would enhance four components of attention: sustained vigilance, concentration, inhibition of distraction, and executive control. A randomized three-group design included: (1) a mindfulness meditation group, (2) a progressive muscle relaxation group to control for effects of physical relaxation on attention, (3) a wait-listed group to control for practice effects of repeated measures. Fifty-three community adults were randomly assigned to one of these groups. Forty-five participants completed the 4-week program. After training and 4weeks of twice-daily practice, the mindfulness group demonstrated significantly greater discriminability on a signal detection task than did the other groups. Significant improvements in sustained attention were found following mindfulness meditation, which did not appear to be mediated by relaxation or practice effects. Performances on measures of concentration and inhibition of distraction did not support the hypothesis. These results partially support current considerations of mindfulness meditation to enhance attention. KeywordsAttention-Mindfulness-Meditation-Progressive muscle relaxation-Randomized controlled trial

Basic definitions, assumptions, and working principles of the Buddhist and mindfulness-based intervention conception of “mindfulness” are characterized. Fundamental distinctions are drawn between Buddhist psychology and mainstream Western behavioral science in terms of aims, types of acquired knowledge, and professional training requirements. Particular emphasis is placed upon issues related to clinical intervention and biopsychosocial dysfunction. An argument is made and examples presented to show that mindfulness is best understood within an experience-based psychological perspective, integrating cognitive, affective, and ethical dimensions. The systematic nature of the development of mindfulness is illustrated by examination of an ancient program aimed at mindful awareness of breathing. Comparisons are made between developmental progression of mindful awareness and a neuroscience-based model of the ontogenesis of capacities of human consciousness; also, the act of awareness or being conscious is distinguished from the capacity for consciousness. In conclusion, acknowledgement of inherent differences—and tensions—between Buddhist and Western psychologies may actually serve to safeguard the concept of mindfulness from being denatured, banalized, or distorted. The potential of mindfulness-based approaches may, in turn, be enhanced for contributing to critical aspects of healthcare, quality of life, and wellbeing. KeywordsMindfulness-Mindfulness-based stress reduction-Mindfulness-based interventions-Meditation-Psychotherapy-Respiration-Breathing-States of consciousness-Neuroscience-Phenomenology

The physical and affective symptoms of a broad range of conditions are improved following mindfulness-based practices. One set of symptoms that has yet to be explored through the lens of mindfulness, however, is that associated with the premenstruum. Also, given the relationships among negative attitudes towards menstruation and amplified symptom reporting, it is reasonable to expect that mindfulness qualities cultivated through practices aimed at dispelling negative anticipatory and judgmental thinking will moderate these relationships. Thus, in this study we examined interrelationships among premenstrual symptom severity reports (PMSR), menstrual attitudes, and mindfulness qualities in a sample of 127 women (age range 18-26 years). Results revealed several statistically significant positive relationships between menstrual attitudes and PMSR. Also, higher scores on measures of mindfulness were significantly associated with lower PMSR. Moderating effects revealed that mindfulness significantly buffered the relationships between menstrual attitudes and PMSR, specifically between: anticipation of menses onset and PMSR as well as anticipation of menses onset and premenstrual water retention. These results may offer the first empirical evidence of relationships among menstrual attitudes, PMSR, and mindfulness qualities. Results from this study align with the body of research showing that mindfulness is predictive of improved symptomatology and well-being across varied conditions. We conclude with discussion supporting the development of a mindfulness-based intervention aimed at reducing symptom severity in premenstrual symptom sufferers. KeywordsPremenstrual Symptomatology–Menstrual Attitudes–Mindfulness–Women–Menses

Mindfulness involves nonjudgmental awareness of one's present experience. It has been incorporated into the treatment of many psychological and physical disorders. Little is currently known about the extent to which mindful awareness is related to healthy diet and physical activity. In the current study, we examined the extent to which degree of mindfulness in everyday life predicts diet, physical activity, and self-efficacy. Participants (n = 269) were volunteers from a mid-sized Western university. They completed measures of mindfulness, physical activity, diet, and self-efficacy. Degree of mindfulness in everyday life predicted physical activity, fruit and vegetable intake, fat intake (males only), and self-efficacy. Important gender differences emerged, with the ability to step back and observe experience predicting healthier behaviors for males, and the ability to mindfully describe experiences with words predicting healthier behaviors for females. KeywordsMindfulness-diet-physical activity-self-efficacy-gender differences

We examined perceived benefits and doubts of participants in a meditation intervention study. We conducted a content analysis of weekly written reports from 65 college students practicing meditation over the course of an academic semester. As anticipated, the majority of participants reported at least one benefit of meditation, and most of these individuals also reported at least one doubt. Benefits fell broadly into cognitive, emotional, and spiritual categories. Types of benefits reported extend beyond many existing quantitative measures focusing on awareness and attention. These results affirm the need for additional measures and multiple methods to capture the depth and breadth of mindfulness experience. Doubts fell broadly into cognitive and physical challenges during meditation sessions, difficulty finding the time and motivation to meditate outside class sessions, and questions about the efficacy of meditation and self-efficacy to engage in it. Descriptions of doubts may inform how mindfulness leaders provide instruction in research and practice settings, and might mitigate attrition. KeywordsMindfulness–Meditation–Benefits–Doubts–Content analysis

We investigated whether the clinical benefits of mindfulness training are mediated by a reduction in maladaptive rumination and an increase in adaptive rumination. Participants in eight-session mindfulness training were assessed before and after treatment, while waiting-list controls were assessed at similar times. For the mindfulness training, a treatment manual was derived from the mindfulness-based cognitive therapy procedure and adapted to account for the consequences of stress, anxiety, and depression rather than just depression. Replicating previous findings, results indicate that mindfulness training, as compared to the waiting-list condition, reduces general psychopathology. It was also found that mindfulness training reduces maladaptive rumination and increases adaptive rumination. Mediational analyses further suggest that clinical benefits of mindfulness required changes in ruminative mode of processing. Results are discussed in terms of Teasdale et al.’s assumption that mindfulness training is effective because it reduces maladaptive rumination. KeywordsMindfulness–Meditation–Modes of processing–Rumination–Psychological change processes

There has been great interest of late in trying to capture the benefits of meditation by scanning meditators’ brains. In this paper, we argue that a successful neuroscience of mindfulness needs to be based on an adequate psychological analysis. We present a definition of mindfulness based on four psychological processes that are relatively well understood, and we show how this model may help organize neuroimaging research and create a bridge to clinical applications. This framework provides an approach to neuroscience research grounded in psychological principles and theory. We propose that this is critical for advancing scientific endeavors such that the knowledge gained helps improve the human condition. KeywordsMindfulness-Functional contextualism-Neuroimaging-Meditation-Acceptance and commitment therapy

Several models have explored the possible change mechanisms underlying mindfulness-based interventions from the perspectives of multiple disciplines, including cognitive science, affective neuroscience, clinical psychiatry, and psychology. Together, these models highlight the complexity of the change process underlying these interventions. However, no one model appears to be sufficiently comprehensive in describing the mechanistic details of this change process. In an attempt to address this gap, we propose a psychological model derived from Buddhist contemplative traditions. We use the proposed Buddhist psychological model to describe what occurs during mindfulness practice and identify specific mechanisms through which mindfulness and attention regulation practices may result in symptom reduction as well as improvements in well-being. Other explanatory models of mindfulness interventions are summarized and evaluated in the context of this model. We conclude that the comprehensive and detailed nature of the proposed model offers several advantages for understanding how mindfulness-based interventions exert their clinical benefits and that it is amenable to research investigation. KeywordsMindfulness–Meditation–Psychological model–Buddhism–Insight

Family caregivers may experience psychiatric symptoms associated with the chronic stress of caring for frail elderly. Mindfulness training may mitigate some of the negative health effects related to caregiving, but the relevant literature is sparse. We present data from a small pilot study of mindfulness training for caregivers of frail elderly. Nine women caregivers between the ages of 48 to 73 participated. Eight weekly classes of mindfulness-based stress reduction were minimally adapted to enhance the potential benefits for caregivers. Measures of depressive symptoms, burden, perceived stress, anxiety, general health, and mindfulness were assessed at baseline, at completion of the intervention, and at a 1-month follow-up. Self-reported depression, perceived stress, and burden decreased during the 8-week intervention with further reduction demonstrated after a 1-month follow-up regarding stress and burden while depressive symptoms returned to baseline level. Mindful attention and calmness increased over the course of the study. Qualitatively, participants reported continued use of acquired skills and personal benefits from the training. These preliminary results are supportive of the development of larger controlled trials of mindfulness training for caregivers. Future studies may consider identifying subpopulations of caregivers most likely to benefit from mindfulness, and the potential need for a continuation phase of active group participation following the 8-week training. KeywordsCaregiving–Depression–Elderly–Mindfulness–Stress

We investigated the psychometric properties of a Chinese version of Five Facet Mindfulness Questionnaire (FFMQ) in a non-clinical student sample. The Chinese FFMQ demonstrated acceptable internal consistency and the test-retest reliability. Confirmatory factor analysis provided support for the five-factor model. Four of these facets (describing, acting with awareness, non-judging and non-reacting) were shown to have incremental validity in the prediction of depression and anxiety. Our findings suggest that the Chinese version of the FFMQ has acceptable psychometric properties and is a valid instrument for the assessment of mindfulness. KeywordsMindfulness–Five Facet Mindfulness Questionnaire (FFMQ)–Reliability–Validity

Self-compassion, or the ability to kindly accept oneself while suffering, is a topic of significant and growing scientific interest. Past research has shown, for example, that self-compassion is associated with less concurrent depression. So far, however, it remained untested whether self-compassion also prospectively predicts depression symptoms. Three hundred and forty-seven first-year psychology students (303 women; 44 men), ages 17–36, completed measures of self-compassion and depression symptoms at two assessments separated by a 5-month period. Results showed that self-compasion significantly predicted changes in depression symptoms, such that higher levels of self-compassion at baseline were significantly associated with greater reductions and/or smaller increases in such symptoms over the 5-month interval. These findings are consistent with the idea that self-compassion respresents a potentially important protective factor for emotional problems such as depression. Additional analyses further suggest that self-compassion is a relatively stable trait-like characteristic. KeywordsSelf-compassion–Depression

Mindfulness is critically analyzed in terms of its possible components, with an emphasis on practical implications of common confusions. Mindfulness as a construct is discussed relative to concentration, awareness, insight, attitude, and awakening. Other issues include the distinction between behaviors of the mind and contents of the mind and concerns about taking mindfulness out of its Buddhist context. The evolution of psychological mindfulness in North America and Asia is briefly discussed. KeywordsMindfulness–Buddhism–Psychology–Concentration–Insight

The practice of mindfulness affords individuals a way of cultivating deep respect for, rather than avoiding, emotions. Cultivating a deep respect for emotions means appreciating and honoring what is unfolding moment by moment. When one nourishes whatever emotion arises, one greets it as an honored guest with an important message to deliver, rather than an enemy to contend with. In embracing and befriending whatever arises, mindfulness makes it possible for the individual to savor and realize more refined emotions. A case study—Katy’s experience with post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD)—is discussed to demonstrate how mindfulness enabled her to develop deep respect for the range of emotions she experienced as a result of her trauma and to make space for them. Specific mindfulness practices and other complementary psychological approaches adapted to her concerns helped her “override” her body memory, an important feature of PTSD, of the experience. The processes involved in the mindfulness practice enabled Katy to understand her motivations for her actions and fully realize her more refined emotions of compassion and sense of responsibility. Incorporating mindfulness in her treatment plan helped Katy cope with PTSD more effectively while she also acquired a life skill beyond learning to cope with the trauma. KeywordsMindfulness–Emotions–Post-traumatic stress disorder–Deep respect–Honored guest

Mindfulness-Based Stress Reduction (MBSR), an 8-week group psychosocial intervention, has received increasing research support for its efficacy in oncology settings. Changes associated with MBSR participation for people with cancer include improved psychological functioning and quality of life. However, as with other populations, it remains unclear which components of MBSR bring about change and whether targeted constructs are critical in changing outcomes. We propose a mediation model to be tested as a first step towards understanding program mechanisms. Specifically, changes in mindfulness and rumination were hypothesized to mediate the impact of MBSR participation on symptoms of depression in people living with cancer. A waitlist-controlled study of MBSR participation in 77 women who had completed cancer treatment was conducted to test this model. Pre- to post-program, MBSR participants improved significantly more on depressive symptoms and mindfulness and decreased more on rumination scores compared to waiting controls. Decreases in rumination mediated the impact of MBSR on depressive symptoms, but mindfulness scores did not. Methodological recommendations are presented to promote research that will further elucidate the mechanisms of action of MBSR. Mediation analyses will inform the next generation of randomized controlled trials and may lead to program modifications that will maximize the effectiveness and efficiency of mindfulness-based interventions in cancer settings. KeywordsMindfulness-based stress reduction-Meditation-Oncology-Intervention-Mediation-Mechanisms

The number of research studies on clinical aspects of mindfulness and neural correlates of meditation practices involving mindfulness is fast growing. But, what is understood as mindfulness and goals of the practice differ across traditions and studies. Clarity in conceptions and components of mindfulness is essential for interpretation of findings across studies and better understanding of the mechanisms involved. In this paper, I outline a working model for exploring mechanisms and effects of different types of mindfulness. The focus is on five dimensions of mindfulness: (1) intention and context of mindfulness practice, (2) bare attention, (3) attentional control, (4) wholesome emotions, and (5) ethical discernment. Meta-awareness and insight, as two additional factors associated with mindfulness, are also discussed. I explore the role these dimensions and factors play in the conception of mindfulness used in the mindfulness-based stress reduction program and in the traditional Buddhist context. Importantly, it is considered how the dimensions and factors of mindfulness may map onto distinct cognitive processes and neural substrates, and what the possible links between them are. This leads to a variety of research hypotheses and questions about mechanisms and effects of mindfulness. I suggest how refinement of the concept of mindfulness and sensitivity to differences across conceptions of mindfulness can lead to development of novel condition- and individual-specific treatment approaches based on meditation, and advance neuroscientific research on brain plasticity associated with well-being. KeywordsMindfulness-Meditation-Attention-Cognitive neuroscience-Well-being

The positive role of mindful raisin-eating in participants’ expectation of liking of raisins, other foods, and nonfood stimuli was tested across two experiments. The present study examined the relation between mindful raisin-eating and the affective evaluation of food and nonfood items (i.e., the degree to which individuals expect to or think they will like a food or nonfood item). In Experiment 1, college students were randomly assigned to complete a mindful raisin-eating task or complete a nonmindful raisin-eating control task and then reported on how much they thought they would like raisins and other foods. In Experiment 2, a third, no-task condition was included to categorize foods and non-foods into initially disliked, neutral, and liked categories. Results indicate that mindful raisin-eating produced higher ratings of expected liking of foods in general (Experiments 1 and 2) compared to nonmindful raisin-eating and that the effect was strongest for initially disliked foods, moderate for initially neutral foods, and smallest for initially liked foods (Experiment 2). Furthermore, the results of Experiment 2 suggest that mindfully eating also produced higher expected liking of non-food stimuli (pets and hobbies) compared to nonmindful raisin-eating. Implications for the use of mindfulness in enhancing daily life experiences and addressing food neophobia and picky eating are discussed. KeywordsMindfulness–Mindful eating–Food liking–Eating enjoyment–Food aversion–Food neophobia

Mindfulness training has had salutary effects with adult populations and it is seen as a potentially helpful to children’s development. How to implement mindfulness practices with young children is not yet clear; some meditation practices, like sitting still for long periods with internally-self-regulated focused attention, seem developmentally inappropriate. Montessori schooling is a 100-year-old system that naturally incorporates practices that align with mindfulness and are suited to very young children. Here I describe how several aspects of Montessori education, including privileging concentrated attention, attending to sensory experience, and engaging in practical work, parallel mindfulness practices. These aspects might be responsible for some of the socio-emotional and executive function benefits that have been associated with Montessori education, and they could be adapted to conventional classroom methods. KeywordsEducation–Mindfulness practices–Montessori–Attention–Concentration

Mindful parenting has been thought to be more effective and less effortful than following a parenting routine. While there is evidence for effectiveness, the lessened effort is largely based on anecdotes. In this study, we created a self-report Parenting Effort Scale for use with already established parent self-report scales of everyday mindfulness and perceived youth problems. One hundred and eighteen volunteer mothers of middle school adolescents completed the three scales. As expected, mothers’ mindfulness scores covaried inversely with their effort scores and their perceptions of youth problems. Also as expected, the effort scores correlated positively with youth internalizing problem scores. This correlation was significantly weakened when mindfulness scores were entered in a regression model, suggesting that mothers’ mindfulness mediated the connection between their perceived effort and perceived youth internalizing problems. Surprisingly, there was no significant correlation between perceived effort and youth externalizing problems. However, we did find a connection involving effort, mindfulness, and externalizing problems. This connection revealed a moderating function in which mothers with high mindfulness scores reported less effort and lower youth externalizing problems compared to mothers with low mindfulness scores. KeywordsMindfulness–Parenting–Adolescents–Behavior–Parent effort scale

A well established notion in Buddhist literature is that meditation practice improves the ability to be mindful in daily life which in turn promotes psychological well-being. In order to test this hypothesis the relations between meditation experience, five mindfulness facets and psychological well-being were studied in a sample consisting of Buddhist meditators, Western mindfulness meditators and non-meditators. The meditators scored higher than non-meditators on all mindfulness facets except Describe, but when age and gender were controlled for there were significant differences only on Non-React and Observe. Multiple and simple mediation were tested in a path model framework. Length of meditation experience was related to Non-React and Observe, and there was a similar trend also for Non-Judge, suggesting that these mindfulness facets are the ones most strongly associated with mindfulness meditation practice. The multiple mediation analysis showed an indirect effect of meditation experience on psychological wellbeing via the five mindfulness facets. Simple mediation analyses indicated that Non-React was the primary mediator. These results support the notion that length of meditation experience is related to higher levels of mindfulness, which in turn is associated with improved well-being. KeywordsMediation analysis–Meditation–Mindfulness–Psychological well-being

Treatment and rehabilitation in forensic settings have been largely based on cognitive behavioural models and therapies. In the past decade, “third wave” approaches have developed in cognitive behavioural therapy, strongly influenced by spiritual and contemplative traditions such as Buddhism. Mindfulness is the most analysed and researched of such approaches. In this paper, we ask whether mindfulness is relevant to therapeutic work with offenders in forensic mental health and criminal justice services. We review the known criminogenic and other needs of offender groups and discuss whether the psychological processes affected by mindfulness are relevant to reducing risk, alleviating distress and facilitating coping. We conclude that they are. Finally, we address some of the problems that may arise in implementing mindfulness interventions in forensic settings. KeywordsMindfulness-Forensic-Offenders-Treatment

IntroductionMindfulness is a property of consciousness which isbeginning to receive considerable attention from psychol-ogists. It has been described as a non-elaborative, non-judgmental, present-centered awareness where all thoughtsand feeling are acknowledged and accepted (Bishop et al.2004). In a state of mindfulness, attention is regulated suchthat increased awareness is brought to the current field ofthoughts, feelings, and sensations, in addition to beimmersed non-judgmentally in the present moment. Thisstate of mind promotes a state of increased psychologicalacceptance which is the key therapeutic benefit of mind-fulness when used to treat problems of anger, stress, or evenpain (Tusaie & Edds 2009; Wright, Day & Howells 2009).Eastern meditative traditions suggest that being presentto the moment is the foundational idea in the developmentof consciousness (Holzel & Ott 2006). This function ofconscious attention has recently been focused upon byWestern psychologists who view it as a cognitive style(Sternberg 2000). Some of this interest may be due topresent-centered awareness being the hallmark of mindful-ness and various associations between mindfulness andwell-being have been identified. For instance, increasingmindfulness has been the cornerstone of several therapiesaimed at preventing substance-abuse relapse, reducingstress and anxiety, and even aiding in dialectical behaviortherapy (Brown & Ryan 2003). More directly, mindfulnessis useful in disengaging individuals from automaticthoughts, habits, and unhealthy behavior patterns therebyfostering a more self-endorsed and informed behavioralregulation (Baer, Smith, & Allen 2004). Along the samelines, mindfulness meditation has been linked to many ofthe basic elements of positive psychology through theenhancement of metacognitive skills and positively chang-ing mental schemas related to emotion, health, and illness(Hamilton, Kitzman, & Guyotte 2006). Finally, emergingresearch hints that mindfulness may have a significantpositive effect on combating mental illness (Orzech 2009).Several researchers have also noted an associationbetween scores on mindfulness scales and psychologicalabsorption (Baer et al. 2004; Brown & Ryan 2003; Holzel& Ott 2006). The findings are mixed such that with a shortmindfulness scale, Brown and Ryan found an inverserelationship to absorption. The other two research groupsfound a positive relationship between the two constructs,when using longer scales designed to examine facets ofmindfulness. Perhaps, a key difference between themeasures used by these groups is that the scale used byBrown and Ryan (the Mindful Attention Awareness Scale(MAAS)) assesses individual differences in the frequencyof mindful states over time. Whereas the modifiedKentucky Inventory of Mindfulness Skills (KIMS) usedby Baer et al. and the custom scales used by Holzel andOtt, are multifaceted measures which asses overallmindfulness. While the frequency of mindful episodesdiffers among individuals, so does the intensity—and thisis an important metric.Episodes of heightened mindfulness are the primary goalof traditional eastern yoga (Salmon, Lush, Jablonski, andSephton 2009). However, the same characteristics of amindful experience can be elicited from a variety of highlycognitively engaging tasks. For instance, "flow" is a termused to describe the subjective mental state of elite athletes

Parenting preschoolers can be a challenging endeavor. Yet anecdotal observations indicate that parents who are more mindful may have greater ease in contending with the emotional demands of parenting than parents who are less mindful. Therefore, we hypothesized that parenting effort, defined as the energy involved in deciding on the most effective way to respond to a preschooler, would be negatively associated with mothers’ mindfulness. In this study, a new parenting effort scale and an established mindfulness scale were distributed to 50 mothers of preschoolers. Using exploratory factor analysis, the factor structure of the new parenting effort scale was examined and the scale was refined. Bivariate correlations were then conducted on this new Parenting Effort—Preschool scale and the established mindfulness scale. Results confirmed the hypothesis that a negative correlation exists between these two variables. Implications are that mindfulness practices may have the potential to alleviate some of the challenges of parenting preschoolers. KeywordsParenting–Mindfulness–Preschoolers–Parenting effort

The stress-reductive effect of mindfulness practice is well-established, yet less is known about the cognitive mechanisms underlying this salutary outcome. We conducted a prospective observational study of 339 participants (mean age 45.7 ± 13.4) undergoing an 8-week mindfulness-based stress and pain management course and found support for our hypotheses that a) pre-post intervention increases in dispositional mindfulness are reciprocally linked with increases in positive reappraisal coping and b) the stress-reductive effects of increases in dispositional mindfulness are mediated by increases in positive reappraisal independent of changes in catastrophizing. Positive reappraisal and mindfulness appear to serially and mutually enhance one another, creating the dynamics of an upward spiral. Through mindfulness practice, individuals may engender a broadened state of awareness that facilitates empowering interpretations of stressful life events, leading to substantially reduced distress. Study findings have implications for cognitive therapy that couples mindfulness practices with restructuring techniques oriented toward benefit finding and positive reappraisal. KeywordsMindfulness–Reappraisal–Stress–Catastrophizing–Positive emotion–Upward spiral

Using a cross-sectional design, we examined the relationship between naturally occurring levels of mindfulness and rumination in students (n = 164). As predicted, we found that, when controlling for current depressive symptoms and prior history of depression, mindfulness was significantly negatively correlated with rumination, but it was only associated with the extent to which rumination was experienced as uncontrollable, not with global levels of rumination. Furthermore, mindfulness moderated the relationship between global levels of rumination and uncontrollability of rumination, consistent with the suggestion that high dispositional mindfulness reduces the extent to which ruminative reactions tend to escalate into self-perpetuating and uncontrollable ruminative cycles. KeywordsMindfulness-Rumination-Depression