International Journal of Agricultural Sustainability

Agricultural productivity in sub-Saharan Africa is low, worsened by the COVID-19 pandemic and climate change. Sustainable Agricultural Practices (SAPs) offer pathways to improve productivity and resilience. This study assessed the impact of SAPs on the farm income of small-scale farmers in Eastern Cape Province. Using a cross-sectional research design and multistage sampling, data were collected from 168 smallholder farmers through semi-structured questionnaires. Descriptive statistics, binary logistic regression, and propensity score matching were used for analysis. Results showed that 70% of farmers were female, averaging 45, and six household members worked as family labour. The study found that 64% of farmers who adopted SAPs had improved farm returns. Empirical results revealed that adopting all five SAPs positively impacted farm income more than adopting one or two. The study concludes that SAPs enhance farmers' welfare and livelihood. Based on the results, the study recommends a gradual transition to these practices, restoring soil health, controlling weeds, reducing erosion, and aligning with the UN's Sustainable Development Goals.

Africa, despite its rich diversity of food resources, faces severe food crises. Understanding spatial-temporal patterns of cultivated land expansion and intensification levels in Africa is crucial for enhancing food security. This study, based on the GlobeLand30 datasets, revealed changes in African cultivated land from 2000 to 2020, by characterizing the area dynamics, intensification levels, and their coupling patterns. Then, we adopted the partial correlation analysis to explore the relationship between food security and both cultivated land expansion and intensification. Results indicated that the net cultivated land area increased by 6.00 × 10⁷ ha from 2000 to 2020. Over 62% of cultivated land remained stable, and conversions mainly occurred between cultivated land and natural vegetation (forest, grassland, and shrubland). During this period, the intensification level was 35.94% in Africa, and East Africa > North Africa > West Africa > Central Africa > Southern Africa. In addition, nearly half of the countries exhibited high cultivated land intensification levels and area expansion (H-E). We also found that improving intensification levels played pivotal roles in alleviating food insecurity for coastal and middle-income countries, and expanding areas were more important for enhancing food security in inland and low-income countries. Our findings provide a comprehensive overview of cultivated land change in Africa over the past 20 years, serving as a valuable reference for alleviating food insecurity, promoting sustainable economic development, and preserving environmental integrity amidst a growing population.

Food systems need to be transformed in order to effectively deal with huge challenges related to biodiversity loss, climate change, health, and food security. More diversity in food system components and interconnections offers a valuable approach to food system sustainability. More diversity relates, among other things, to diversity in crops at field and farm level, to contribute to biodiversity and resilience; diversity in diets for enhanced human health; and diversity in actors and actor connections to enable food system transformation. Governing towards more sustainable food systems through more diversity, however, is challenging, because regimes that regulate food systems are highly resistant to change. More scientific research is needed to better understand (a) the roles that key actors play and under which conditions they can be stimulated to more actively contribute to food system transformation; (b) the formation (or absence) of actor coalitions for food system transformation; (c) how current governance arrangements for food system sustainability work and can be enhanced; and (d) resistance to change in food system regimes and how to overcome it.

This review explores recent advancements in Nigeria's rice farming sector, focusing on the integration of digitalization within the agricultural value chain. By conducting a systematic analysis Seventy-Eight (78) publications from the past 14 years, the study investigates how digital platforms, such as AgricTech apps and e-commerce solutions, are transforming rice farming by connecting farmers, processors, marketers, and fabricators to streamline operations and boost efficiency. The review not only highlights the transformative potential of digital technologies in boosting crop yields and enhancing supply chain transparency but also addresses the significant challenges that hinder widespread adoption. These challenges include poor internet connectivity, limited digital literacy among rural farmers, and financial constraints. Despite these obstacles, the findings reveal promising opportunities for innovation, driven by the adoption of digital platforms that link stakeholders more effectively and improve access to global markets. The review emphasizes the urgent need for targeted interventions such as expanding digital literacy programs, improving rural internet infrastructure, and offering financial support mechanisms that can accelerate technology adoption and ensure an equitable, tech-driven agricultural future in Nigeria. In conclusion, this review stresses the pivotal role of digitalization in transforming Nigeria’s rice farming sector and provides actionable recommendations to policymakers, agribusinesses, and development agencies. It calls for a coordinated effort to overcome existing barriers and unlock the full potential of agricultural value chain data, positioning Nigeria as a key player in the global agricultural market.

Access to finance is essential for sustainable agriculture and improving rural livelihoods. This study examines the impact of organisational innovations and sustainable finance accessibility on the livelihoods of rural women. Our research focuses on 50 female Shea nut producers in Kpugi, northern Ghana, who are beneficiaries of the ‘Invest for Jobs’ initiative. Using a mixed-methods approach and case study research, data were gathered through focus group discussions and interviews with members of two cooperatives. The findings reveal that while cooperatives facilitate access to finance, they should be viewed as part of a broader package of organizational innovations rather than standalone solutions. The success of the cooperatives owes to the deep cultural roots of Shea farming in the lives of the women, making it easy for them to accept innovations that will improve their success in an activity they do not plan to abandon. Increased bargaining power and subsequent income increase result not only from delayed selling, stemming from finance access but also from improved production practices and better storage infrastructure. This paper highlights how a package of organisational innovations can catalyse women’s financial inclusion and emphasises the importance of nurturing such innovations within activities deeply rooted in rural livelihoods.

Sustainability is essential for the creation of a secure, sufficient, and equitable global food supply and overreliance on expensive, synthetic fertilizers is a key challenge. Rice is a nitrogen-intensive crop, but Southeast Asian farmers are intercropping the nitrogen-fixing floating fern Azolla into rice paddies as a biofertilizer. However, despite its success and global distribution, Azolla is not widely used elsewhere. We assessed the feasibility of Azolla-rice intercropping in Saint-Louis, Senegal using a mixed-methods approach. We conducted interviews with farmers to assess their perceptions of Azolla-rice farming while they participated in an experiment to compare rice yields among four treatments: control plots (the existing practices of the farmer), Azolla plots (existing practices and adding fresh Azolla), low input plots (a 50% reduction of urea), and low input + Azolla plots (reduced urea + Azolla) in farmers’ paddies located in the Senegal River Valley. Across all five sites, there was a significant increase of 7.57% ± 4.62% SE (p-value = 0.05) in rice grain yield with Azolla additions. Replacing urea with Azolla caused a modest increase of 4.17% ± 4.61% SE (p-value = 0.18) in rice grain yield while reducing input costs by 33%. Our results suggest that Azolla-rice has high potential to improve productivity and livelihoods in Senegal.

The rapid growth of Internet digital technology has provided a new boost to the field, making it important to examine its impact on reducing fertilizer usage at the individual farmer level. This study uses data from the 2020 China Rural Revitalization Survey to investigate how the farmers’ Internet use affects their fertilizer management efficiency and the intrinsic mechanisms in the context of agricultural machinery and social services. The results show that farmers who used the Internet to obtain information regarding farming were nearly 3.5% more fertilizer efficient than farmers who did not use the Internet. Heterogeneity analysis showed that farmers who plant staple crops, acquire agronomic training, and farm on small scales are more likely to improve fertilizer use efficiency. An analysis of the mechanism indicated that the aforementioned effect was achieved by increasing the demand for social services and enhancing agricultural machinery operation. Therefore, it is recommended to use the Internet and other digital technologies to deepen the division of labour in agriculture and advance agricultural technology, as well as strengthen its deep integration with social services and operating agricultural machinery to stimulate the green effect of digital empowerment.

Adaptive multi-paddock (AMP) grazing is gaining attention for its potential to increase soil organic carbon (SOC), yet its efficacy on arid and semi-arid rangelands remains debated. Given the adaptive nature of AMP, on-ranch studies are essential for measuring its applied outcomes. To assess AMP’s impact on Mediterranean California rangelands, we collected 1,440 soil samples from four paired AMP and conventional (CONV) grazing sites across northern California. Three AMP ranches had significantly greater SOC stocks in surface soils (17% greater SOC at 0–10 cm), and two had greater SOC stocks to 100 cm (32% greater), compared to CONV ranches. The largest SOC differences occurred in the mineral-associated organic matter fraction, suggesting longer-term SOC storage. While plant community composition did not differ significantly, AMP ranches, on average, had slightly less bare ground, greater live plant cover, and two sites had 82% greater perennial grass cover. These factors may have contributed to SOC differences. Further research is needed to understand site-specific constraints, underlying mechanisms, and SOC changes over time under AMP grazing.

The importance of participation and co-development in the study of climate change impacts and adaptations, and in the production of climate services is widely acknowledged. There is a lot to be learnt from current attempts to achieve participatory modelling in climate impacts science. In this systematic review of climate impacts in agriculture research, we map out how participation is typically achieved, with whom and at what stages of the modelling process. We also look at the extent to which challenges and issues around inclusion and marginalisation are encountered and critically reflected on within this literature. We reflect on conventional and best practices and reveal areas in which there is currently insufficient attention given in order to encourage a more critical reflection on the design and implementation of participatory modelling. We argue that there is a current pre-occupation within participatory climate impacts modelling literature on instrumental reasons for including stakeholders and on technical barriers to this inclusion. Limited attention is currently paid to the potential transformative and emancipatory nature of participation in climate impacts modelling and there is a need for more critical reflection on the knowledge politics and power dynamics that act to limit equitable participation in such research.

The adoption rate of improved maize varieties (IMVs) is low among small-scale farmers in South-Kivu province, eastern Democratic Republic of Congo (DRC), despite extensive dissemination efforts by local and international research institutions and non-governmental organizations (NGOs). The level of understanding of farmers’ preferences and needs for released IMVs, as well as socioeconomic factors influencing their adoption in South-Kivu, is still limited. This study aimed at assessing farmers’ preference criteria for maize varieties and identifying factors driving the adoption of IMVs as well as major production constraints in South-Kivu, to guide varietal selection and breeding initiatives. Results showed that the most farmer-preferred attributes were high yield potential, early maturity, taste, and pest/disease resistance, with significant disparities across market segments. Socioeconomic factors such as the farmer’s age, experience, membership of farmer organization, contacts with extension services, land ownership, seed availability, access to credits and labour availability bear significant influence on the adoption decision of IMVs. While experience and membership of farmers’ organizations negatively influence the adoption of the combination of local and IMVs. Lack of land, pest and disease, lack of labour, and unavailability of quality seeds were the most important constraints faced by farmers. In addition to controlling negative socioeconomic factors and production constraints, it would be essential to initiate breeding initiatives that consider local farmers’ preferences and needs, to boost IMVs uptake by farmers in South-Kivu.

Digital transformation is an inevitable trend, and adopting digital technology in farmer cooperatives boosts production and efficiency. This study combines the Technology Acceptance Model and the Technology-Organization-Environment framework to explore farmer cooperatives’ intention to adopt digital technology. Using data from 230 Chinese cooperatives engaged in cultivation, we identify key factors and mechanisms influencing their adoption intention, applying partial least squares method. The results indicate that both perceived ease of use and perceived usefulness have significant positive effects on the intention to adopt digital technology. Perceived ease of use also enhances perceived usefulness. In addition, government support and competitive advantage contribute to improving cooperatives’ perceptions of both the ease of use and usefulness of digital technology. Organizational competency is found to play a crucial role in facilitating the perceived ease of use of digital technology. Moreover, the cooperative chairman's internet usage and participation in vocational training strengthen the positive relationship between perceived ease of use and digital technology adoption intention. Government support and organizational competency also indirectly enhance the intention to adopt digital technology by improving cooperatives’ perceived ease of use. This study provides key insights for developing government policies to promote the digital transformation of farmer cooperatives.

Greater use of agrobiodiversity and especially neglected and underutilized species (NUS) like amaranth, Bambara groundnut, cassava, fabirama, okra, moringa, Guinea sorrel, or sweet potato can tackle climate change and food insecurity, and build food sovereignty. The role of NUS in policies and strategies in Burkina Faso and Niger has not been studied earlier. This study uses a mixed method where analysis of current policies, an online survey and workshops with stakeholders were combined. It gives an overview on policies on different sectors and helps to explore options for enhancing the efficiency of incentives aimed at promoting the use of NUS. The contribution of the policies and strategies (44 documents of the 96 identified) to the promotion of NUS and agrobiodiversity was analyzed. They generally recognize the importance of agroecological practices and biodiversity, and thus support the promotion of NUS. However, only 17 mention NUS specifically. Some texts refer to gender as a cross-cutting theme and recognize women’s primordial role in a better management of resources. Based on the findings, it is recommended to: (i) include NUS in sectoral policies; (ii) support the marketing and consumption; (iii) consider the best practices implemented in other countries to mainstream NUS in food systems.

Examining the relationship between organic farming adoption (OFA) and subjective well-being (SW) is crucial for understanding farmers' adoption behavior regarding organic farming and the factors facilitating its dissemination. This paper utilizes a sample of 450 farmers from four counties in the Xiangxi Tujia and Miao Autonomous Prefecture of Hunan Province, China, to compare the SW of conventional and organic farmers. Based on the Millennium Ecosystem Assessment well-being framework, using the ordered probit model, we analyzed the mechanisms of OFA on the SW of organic farmers, including the subgroups of conversion farmers and certified farmers. The results indicated that organic farmers reported higher SW than conventional farmers. The positive effect of OFA on SW of organic farmers was not present in the conversion period but was statistically significant in the certification period. Farm profitability, health, environmental quality, and food safety were mediators of OFA on SW, although the mediating effects of health and food safety didn't apply to conversion farmers. Findings from this study provide information on how OFA affects SW, which can be useful for governments to develop supportive policies to attract conventional farmers and stabilize organic farmers to adopt organic farming.

Digital inclusive finance (DIF), as an important supplement to traditional finance, has significant practical implications for achieving agricultural modernization. Based on micro-data from a survey of small and micro enterprises in China in 2015, this paper uses the Logit model to examine the impact mechanism of DIF on innovative activities of new agricultural operating entities. It is found that DIF significantly increases the probability of new agricultural operating entities carrying out creative activities. The mechanism analysis shows that DIF can enhance the financing and information access of new agricultural operating entities, thereby promoting their innovative activities. The heterogeneity test shows that the impact of DIF on new agricultural operating entities is different due to geographical environment, Internet penetration, managers’ educational level, and land transfer behaviour of operators. The above research provides empirical evidence for the deep integration and development of DIF and innovative new agricultural operating entities. It provides relevant policy implications for promoting high-quality agricultural development.

Drip irrigation is beneficial for improving crop yield and water use efficiency (WUE); however, it is rarely used for winter wheat production in semi-humid and drought-prone areas. To evaluate the optimal drip irrigation amount, a 4-year field experiment was conducted to investigate the effects of applying different water amounts (RF: rainfed; DI1, DI2, and DI3: 60, 120, and 180 mm of drip irrigation; FI3: 180 mm of traditional flood irrigation) on available soil water storage (ASWS), agronomic and physiological characteristics, yield, net income, and WUE of winter wheat in the Guanzhong Plain of China. The results showed that DI2 treatment performed the best among five treatments, which was attributed to the improvement of ASWS consumption in the 1–2 m soil layer, leaf area index, chlorophyll content, and net photosynthetic rate. The four-year average grain yield, net income, and WUE of DI2-treated winter wheat increased by 15.4%, 18.4%, and 25.5%, respectively, compared with FI3. Regression analysis indicated the optimal drip irrigation amounts were 163 and 137 mm in dry and normal years, respectively, and can be considered as a guideline for economical irrigation strategy for winter wheat production in semi-humid and drought-prone areas.

Limited empirical evidence exist on local-level institutions’ innovations and experiences in facilitating climate-smart agriculture (CSA) adoption. Qualitative interviews with farmers and local institutions supporting agriculture in Nandom, Ghana, were conducted. We found that local-level institutions employed (1) farmer-field schools (FFS) for capacity building to provide relevant knowledge for managing CSA practices; and (2) credit extension packages to reduce financial barriers to accessing inputs and technologies for CSA. We also found that sociocultural, financial, logistical, and technological constraints are the most important barriers hampering local-level institutions` ability to effectively facilitate CSA adoption. Furthermore, we observed that to encourage the uptake of CSA practices, particularly among vulnerable groups such as women, social power dynamics surrounding resource access and utilization must be addressed. For practice, the findings (1) serve as a case for learning different innovations that can be adapted in different contexts; and (2) give insights on how to overcome social barriers to CSA adoption and facilitation. We recommend that governmental institutions such as the Ministry of Food and Agriculture allocate resources and design policies that builds the of implementers. Training institutions must tailor contents to the needs and assimilation levels of target communities. Additionally, development partners should establish long-term funding mechanisms beyond grant cycles to provide sustainable financial support for CSA upscale.

Integrated rice-fish (RF) is seen as a valuable system to increase food production and farmers’ income in Africa. To date, no research has been conducted to comparatively assess integrated RF, rice, and fish monoculture systems in Africa. This study aimed to evaluate the agronomic and economic performances and identify constraints and enabling conditions for large-scale adoption of RF systems in Africa. Systematic review and meta-analysis were performed using papers collected from January 1999 to December 2023 and 30 pair-observations. The results showed a significant effect on FGR (+6%) in integrated RF compared to fish monoculture. The production cost increased by 300 USD/ha in integrated RF, but the gross revenue increased by more than 600 USD/ha resulting in an increase in net income by 300 USD/ha compared to rice monoculture. NUE, soil properties, and control of weeds, pests, and diseases were enhanced in the integrated RF compared to rice monoculture. Land ownership, water supply unreliability, access to fish feed and fingerlings, and lack of funding were the major factors limiting integrated RF adoption by farmers. Due to the limited data identified in this study, more field observations and long-term monitoring are necessary on land suitability and management practices for integrated RF.

The commercialization of smallholder farmers is seen as the most significant driver of improved food security and household welfare in most countries with low-agricultural economies. This study used a Generalized Propensity Score Matching (GPSM) approach to evaluate the average causal effects of vegetable commercialization levels on the food security status of households in Sabbata Hawas Woreda, Oromia Region, Ethiopia. Data were collected through surveys of 385 farm households, key informant interviews, focus group discussions, and observations. The results revealed that vegetable commercialization had both positive and negative effects on households’ food security. The MAHFP increased steadily as the levels of commercialization increased. However, the lower levels of commercialization are associated with negative outcomes for calorie intake, food consumption scores, and household dietary diversity scores. The caloric intake, HDDS, and FCS were improved after commercialization levels reached 50%, 40%, and 25% respectively. The findings indicate that an increase in commercialization may not always lead to consistent increases across all indicators of food security and it has heterogeneous effects on households with different levels of commercialization. The subsequent policy recommendations of the study results are that, even though smallholder commercialization strategies are crucial for ensuring increased food production, productivity, and incomes for food security, it still requires taking into account the heterogeneous food security effects of vegetable commercialization levels.

Rural transformation is important to deal with environmental change. In the context of rural transformation, institutional and policy changes have a great impact on farmers’ livelihoods. The adaptive cycle and the outcomes of farmers’ livelihoods reflect the impacts of rural transformation on farmers. In this study, we constructed a new analytical framework to analyse the adaptive cycle of farmers’ livelihoods and established an indicator system to quantify the adaptive cycle. Meanwhile, we identified the factors influencing the adaptive cycle of farmers’ livelihoods. We showed that farmers’ livelihood in Minqin County, Gansu Province, Northwest China, from 1990 to 2017 had gone through the phases of Reorganization (α), Reorganization (α)→Exploitation (r), and Exploitation (r). The sources of farmers’ livelihoods were gradually diversified and the per capita net income had gradually increased. The reform of the socialist market economy and the ecological governance policies were the fundamental factors influencing the change of potential and resilience in the adaptive cycle. Resilience was the most important factor affecting the outcome of farmers’ livelihoods. These findings can provide references to adjust government strategies and the choice of farmers’ livelihoods, which is helpful in achieving sustainable livelihoods, rural transformation, and development in arid areas.

The global south faces challenges in enhancing smallholder farmers' resilience to climate change and food insecurity. Indigenous knowledge and small-scale irrigation (SSI) systems are being promoted as a viable solution to address these challenges. This paper explores how smallholder farmers use local knowledge to establish informal and farmer-led SSI to enhance smallholders' resilience in agriculture and livelihoods. A qualitative research approach with 79 semi-structured interviews was carried out with farmers' households in Tamaske rural community in Southwest Niger, followed by thematic and statistical analysis. The results revealed that an alternative SSI strategy is mostly based on internal agencies rather than externally supported and it serves as a tool to enhance household food and income security amid climate change. The empirical case allows us to assess the value of indigenous knowledge in agriculture by asking how local people can bring together ideas and resources to enhance SSI and build resilience to climate change. The study suggests that the initiation and multiplication of SSI systems can be achieved by farmers' own agencies if appropriate technology and cooperation mechanisms are selected. The policy focus should promote simple, root-based technology as limited government financial support in the global south may hinder this progress.

P. cyrtonema is an important medicinal plant in China, but rising market demand has highlighted the need for improved cultivation practices. Planting P. cyrtonema under tree shade is proposed as a sustainable method, yet technological and agronomic gaps remain in optimizing growth and productivity. Hence there is a need to develop efficient cultivation strategies to improve both yield and quality of P. cyrtonema, which will ensure its continuous availability to meet rising market demands. With this background the study has been carried out with the following objective of evaluating the growth, yield, and quality of P. cyrtonema, with different treatments of fertilizer application, planting density, and light transmittance. The results showed that nitrogen (N) is the most limiting factor for yield, followed by potassium (K) and phosphorus (P). The interaction effects ranked as NP > PK > NK. A combination of 50%–75% organic fertilizer significantly improved yield and quality. The optimal planting density was found to be 25 cm × 40 cm, and the ideal light transmittance range was 45.7%–68.4%. These findings provide strategic solutions for enhancing the productivity of P. cyrtonema and developing sustainable cultivation techniques, helping to reduce the supply-demand gap for this medicinal plant.

Urbanization and ecological efforts in China have significantly altered agricultural land use affecting both the quantity and quality of arable land. There has been a rise in the use of energy, fertilizers, pesticides, and plastic films to enhance production. However, these unsustainable farming practices have led to higher greenhouse gas emissions and the risk of agricultural non-point source pollution. The Yunnan Province government aims for sustainable agriculture to enhance product quality and China’s green farming. Yunnan’s proximity to the Yangtze, Lancang, and Yuan Rivers makes agriculture vital for the downstream livelihoods and biodiversity. This study explored factors affecting agriculture in Dali Prefecture, Yunnan Province. The study proposed a comprehensive system of 33 indexes to assess agricultural sustainability performance using the Driver-Pressure-State-Impact-Response framework. It employed a composite weight method combining the Analytic Hierarchy Process and Entropy Weight methods. The assessment showed that all counties except Dali City scored a performance index below 0.5. Furthermore, the “Response” indicator was found to be crucial in advancing agricultural sustainability. Conversely, factors leading to unsustainable changes, like “Driver” were less significant. The study reveals that data statistics prioritize indexes related to land resources while experts emphasize indexes linked to socioeconomic status when assessing agricultural sustainability.

Despite its great fisheries biodiversity, Indonesia is not the world's largest ornamental fish exporter. To improve export competitiveness, it is also necessary to strengthen the cluster competitiveness through institutional development. Indonesia contains several ornamental fish-producing regions, and the government has designated several aquaculture farming villages, including four regions for ornamental fish farming. This research aims to build a sustainable institutional model of an ornamental fish farming export village (OFFEV) that is expected to increase Indonesia's ornamental fish exports. The study utilized the Interpretive Structural Modeling (ISM) methodology. This approach aims to ascertain the hierarchical prioritization of stakeholders and the requisite programme stages for achieving the success of the OFFEV initiative. Through identification, judgment, and validation from 18 experts who participated in the study, the results reveal that the fisheries department, Ministry of Marine Affairs and Fisheries, trade attachés, customs, and research institutions can drive the OFFEV. Short-term programmes are the main priorities, including sustainable cultivation and quarantine assistance, cooperative establishment, facilities and infrastructure support, broodstock aid, funding, product marketing training, and partnership programmes. Finally, based on the ISM results and expert opinion, we built an OFFEV model centred on export-oriented Village-Owned Enterprises or multi-party cooperatives.

Engaging the private sector in extension services and their direct interaction with farmers contributes to conservation agriculture production systems (CAPS) promotion. This study was conducted to assess influencing factors and mechanisms to engage private sector actors and to rank them to perform their engagement with farmers in an agricultural extension model designed to promote CAPS in Cambodia. The sample size for the survey instrument consisted of 481 randomly selected households, including both CAPS and non-CAPS farmers. For focus group discussions, a purposive sample of 28 participants was used. The positive factors influencing CAPS farmers' engagement with the private sector included gender, number of fields, off-farm income, farm experience, familiarity with the private sector in a commune and government subsidies. In contrast, total land size of main crops, and farmers' perceptions of utilization of private services including a distance of service and increase in profit had a negative impact. Subsidy and incentive programs from the government emerged as highly effective mechanisms for encouraging private sector engagement with farmers. Access to financial institutions was a key priority when engaging the private sector with CAPS farmers. Providing subsidies and incentives is a short-term economic benefit for smallholder farmers that could impact the long-term adoption.

Sustainability assessment of dairy systems is necessary to understand bottlenecks and to identify measures to enhance sustainability of the systems. The Dairy Sustainability Assessment Tool (DSAT) was developed with a focus on the facilitation of discussion on sustainability among dairy sector actors in East Africa. DSAT has been applied in several case studies, but the tool has not been systematically evaluated. The objectives of this study were to evaluate the strengths and weaknesses of DSAT and to compare its main features with similar dairy assessment tools for Africa. This evaluation consisted of a literature search to identify relevant assessment tools and an online survey about the tool among its users. DSAT was different from other tools compared with as it does not require input data from farm surveys as the assessments rely on expert opinion, and it can conduct assessments at farm, regional and national scales. Results also showed that DSAT was appropriate for holistic assessments of the sustainability of dairy systems in Africa by providing a good overview of threats to sustainability. Weaknesses were mainly the scoring of indicators, which tends to be subjective and the absence of numerical reference values for indicators. Therefore, improving DSAT requires addressing the identified weaknesses.