Geological Journal

Artificial intelligence (AI) has revolutionised various fields, including paleobotany and palynology. This paper systematically reviews the development and application of AI in these disciplines from the 1980s to 2025. The integration of AI, encompassing expert systems, neural networks, support vector machines, and other machine learning algorithms, has significantly automated a variety of paleontological research workflows. The application of AI in paleobotany involves multiple aspects such as image classification, image segmentation and prediction. This greatly promotes the process of data‐driven palaeontology. Despite the advancements, key challenges in AI fossil recognition persist, including data scarcity, variability in fossil preservation, and the need for high‐quality training datasets. To address these issues, techniques such as data augmentation, transfer learning, and the use of synthetic data are recommended. Future research should focus on expanding the size and quality of fossil image datasets, integrating advanced image segmentation and predictive techniques, and exploring three‐dimensional model datasets to capture the intricate geometric structures of fossils. The expert and AI collaborative model could prove more efficient and accurate than relying on either manual or automated work alone. At the same time, the use of automated identification systems should not overshadow the importance of academic training in the knowledge domain for these experts. The role of paleobotanists remains not only crucial but also continues to evolve. It is anticipated that the integration of palaeontology and AI will have profound impacts in the coming years and decades, particularly in addressing complex issues that are challenging to resolve using traditional methods. Research using AI in paleobotany and palynology has significant potential for advancing our understanding of paleoecosystems. By addressing current challenges and fostering deeper integration between AI and domain expertise, the field is poised to enter a new era of intelligent and transformative paleontological research.

Research on shale pore structure has advanced the understanding of shale gas occurrence, migration and enrichment mechanisms. However, the factors affecting shale pore structure are complex and contentious, limiting a comprehensive understanding of shale gas accumulation. This study focuses on the Longmaxi (LMX) Formation shale in the Changning area of southern Sichuan, utilising X‐ray diffraction (XRD), organic geochemistry, thin section and scanning electron microscope (SEM) observation and nitrogen adsorption experiments to classify lithofacies types and examine how mineral composition and organic matter (OM) control pore structure and identify favourable shale reservoirs. The results show that the LMX Formation shale can be categorised into four different lithofacies: organic‐rich siliceous shale (RS), organic‐rich mixed shale (RM), organic‐lean siliceous shale (LS) and organic‐lean mixed shale (LM). The predominant pore types include OM pores and inorganic pores (mainly intergranular and intragranular pores), with mesopores contributing the majority of the total pore volume (PV) and specific surface area (SSA), accounting for approximately 70% and 80%, respectively. Characterised by high total organic carbon (TOC) content and well‐developed OM pores, RS and RM exhibit larger PV and SSA, suggesting better resource potential compared to LS and LM. In these high‐TOC shales, both SSA and PV show a strong positive correlation with TOC content and a negative correlation with clay mineral content. Conversely, in low‐TOC shales, SSA and PV are positively correlated with clay mineral content while the correlation with TOC diminishes. There is a tight intrinsic relationship between lithofacies characteristics and pore structure.

Lithium, a crucial material for new energy vehicle batteries and the energy storage sector, is encountering escalating global competition. The Qaidam Basin, being one of China's major lithium‐rich salt lake brine regions, a key site for lithium extraction from salt lakes, and an important production base for lithium carbonate, considerably influences China's self‐sufficiency in lithium resources. Based on analysing the lithium resource status and the development and utilisation status of brine in the Qarhan, East Taijnar, West Taijnar, Yiliping, and Big Qaidam salt lakes in this region, and by systematically categorising the distribution characteristics of brine in salt lakes and subsurface brine, including fissure‐pore brine types and sand conglomerate pore brine types, the paper identifies key issues in the exploration, development, and utilisation of salt lake lithium resources in the Qaidam Basin, including inadequate availability of factors of production, insufficient continuity and security in resources, low levels of comprehensive utilisation, insufficient core competitiveness of enterprises, and gaps in technological innovation. Based on these challenges, the paper puts forward several measures such as enhancement of infrastructure, verification of existing resources, enhancement of comprehensive utilisation, industrial optimisation and upgrading, and deepening of collaborative innovation. These strategies offer insights into the sustainable development and high‐quality industrial growth of lithium resources in the region.

Landslide susceptibility maps at the regional scale are a very efficient tool for landslide planning and management. The Himalayan region in India is highly prone to the occurrence of landslides that lead to huge losses. In this paper, we prepared the landslide susceptibility maps for the Almora district in Uttarakhand, India using different techniques. A landslide inventory was prepared using the available historical data of landslides in the region. Eight factors including slope, aspect, curvature, relative relief, distance from lineament, drainage density, geology, and distance from faults are designated as causative factors of landslides. The contribution of the causative factors and sub‐factors is modelled using different techniques. In this study, frequency ratio, statistical index, analytic hierarchy process, and landslide numerical risk factor are applied for calculating the weightage of causative factors. A hybrid method by combining the landslide numerical risk factor and analytic hierarchy process termed as AHP‐LNRF method is also proposed. Five landslide susceptibility maps of the study area were prepared in a GIS environment. The landslide susceptibility maps are divided into five categories according to the susceptibility of different zones to the occurrence of landslides. The accuracy of the output of the study is predicted by receiver operating characteristics (ROC) curve technique. It is observed that the statistical index technique had the highest prediction rate (0.789) whilst frequency ratio showed a prediction rate of 0.764. Landslide numerical risk factor technique showed the least accuracy with a prediction rate of 0.719 which is improved to 0.738 in the AHP‐LNRF technique. The AHP technique had a prediction rate of 0.735. The models and their output can be improved by improving the landslide inventory and optimising the causative factors of landslides. The results of the study can be used by the planner, managers, and researchers for landslide risk planning and management.

This study applies non‐destructive foraminiferal proxies to refine the stratigraphic framework, clarify climatic variations during the Miocene period, and investigate potential climatic teleconnections in the Gulf of Suez, Egypt. A comprehensive biostratigraphic differentiation of the Burdigalian‐Langhian Rudeis and Kareem formations is achieved based on distinctive assemblages of planktonic foraminifera. The Rudeis Formation is characterised by Globigerina falconensis and Trilobatus sacculifer (> 50%), while the Kareem Formation is characterised by Orbulina universa and O. suturalis. The consistent absence of Praeorbulina glomerosa, O. suturalis, and O. universa from the Rudeis Formation is a major diagnostic feature for its distinction from the Kareem Formation. A clear unconformity at the contact between the Rudeis and Kareem formations is linked with hiatuses of about 1.15 and 1.57 Myr, providing justification for separating the two formations. Reconstructed sea surface temperatures (SST) from planktonic foraminifera record significant warming events throughout the Burdigalian‐Langhian period, with average SSTs in the Gulf of Suez attaining 20.5°C within the Middle Miocene Warm Interval (Mi1b) and 20.4°C, 19.7°C, and 19.6°C within the Langhian Warming (Mi2a). The Gulf of Suez SSTs exhibit 0.8°C–1.7°C warming above the Global Average Temperature, reflecting regional amplification of global trends. Correlating the first appearance of key taxa (Orbulina universa, O. suturalis) in the Kareem Formation with regional bioevents aligns the local stratigraphy with broader Mediterranean‐Paratethyan frameworks. This multi‐proxy integration strengthens the stratigraphic resolution and establishes the Gulf of Suez as a critical archive for understanding Miocene climatic dynamics in the Mediterranean‐Paratethys gateway region, offering analogs for assessing modern marine ecosystem resilience under anthropogenic climate change.

Droughts and floods are extreme hydrological events with severe socio‐economic and environmental consequences, necessitating robust assessment frameworks for effective risk management. This review provides a comprehensive analysis of spatial methodologies for evaluating these hazards, emphasising the need for region‐specific frameworks due to the distinct nature of droughts and floods. The study examines various geospatial and hydrological modelling techniques, including the Soil and Water Assessment Tool (SWAT), MODFLOW, WaterGAP and Geographic Information System (GIS)–based approaches, to assess hazard patterns across diverse climatic and topographical regions. The review further explores statistical, machine learning (ML) and deep learning (DL) models, such as Support Vector Machines (SVM), Random Forest (RF) and Deep Learning Neural Networks (DLNN), which enhance predictive accuracy in hazard forecasting. The key findings highlight the necessity of integrating spatial analysis with predictive analytics to develop a regionally adaptable framework. This approach ensures improved early warning systems, tailored mitigation strategies and enhanced resilience against both drought and flood hazards. By addressing regional variations in hazard occurrence and intensity, this study aids in the creation of better policies for disaster organisation and preparedness.

In situ LA‐ICP‐MS U–Pb dating and trace element analyses were conducted on the wolframites present in the quartz veinlets and large quartz veins of the ores within the Guomuyang tungsten deposit in Fujian. The results of the U–Pb dating indicate that the ages of the wolframite samples sourced from the quartz veinlets and large quartz veins are 109 Ma and 107–105 Ma, respectively. The timing of tungsten mineralization in the deposit coincides with the stages of tungsten mineralization in the Nanling area, suggesting that the large‐scale tungsten mineralization in South China during the Early Cretaceous might have extended eastward from the Nanling area to the Wuyishan metallogenic belt. The wolframite in the quartz veinlets has relatively high concentrations of Nb and Ta and a low δEu value, indicating that the early quartz veinlets containing wolframite were formed under relatively reductive conditions. In addition, the non‐characteristic features of the Y/Ho and Zr/Hf ratios of wolframite suggest that F might have played an important role in the migration and enrichment of tungsten. Through detailed morphological observations of the orebodies and analyses of the mineral assemblages, and in combination with the prominent geochemical characteristics of wolframite, which exhibit significant enrichment of heavy rare earth elements, as well as being poor in La and Ce while rich in Y, it is concluded that the genetic type of the Guomuyang tungsten deposit belongs to the magmatic‐hydrothermal type tungsten deposit.

The impact of renewable energy technologies and investments in reducing carbon levels is important. This issue has been little addressed so far due to a lack of data. The most important feature of this study is that it examines the impact of renewable energy investments and renewable energy technologies on reducing oil‐derived carbon emissions for the first time across 27 European Union countries for the years 2006–2021. Another new aspect of the study is that it divides European countries into two, based on income level, and considers the impact of governance indicators such as regulatory quality, political stability, and democracy on European countries' carbon neutrality targets. For this purpose, the robust Driscoll and Kraay robust estimator panel data method was applied in the study, based on the Hausman test, autocorrelation test, inter‐unit correlation test, and heteroscedasticity tests. The findings show that renewable energy investments and technologies help reduce carbon emissions in different models. In addition, although economic growth is beneficial for the environment, it has been determined that it has an increasing effect on carbon emissions in European countries with higher income levels. Trade openness reduces carbon emissions in high‐income countries and increases them in low‐income countries. Population density contributes to reducing carbon emissions. Overall, the results suggest that European countries need to increase renewable energy investments and support clean technologies to achieve carbon neutrality targets. The study also shows that reducing oil consumption by promoting renewable energy technologies and investments is key for European policymakers to reduce carbon emissions.

The aim of this study is to investigate the diagenetic processes and their impact on reservoir quality within the Jurassic Badaowan Formation of the Junggar Basin. Various experimental techniques were employed, including thin section petrography, scanning electron microscopy, x‐ray diffraction, and fluid inclusion micro‐thermometry, to characterise the rock composition, pore types, and diagenetic alterations from core samples of nine wells in the study area. The results reveal that the compaction and cementation are the dominant factors contributing to reservoir densification, with porosity significantly reduced by mechanical compaction and carbonate cementation. A total of four facies were identified based on diagenetic strength and sedimentary cycle associated with different diagenesis stages and reservoir physical‐property responses: (1) “Low‐plastic lithic weak compaction facies (LPLF)” occurred the cementation of chlorite rims at the early diagenetic stage and multiple stages of cementation and dissolution at the middle diagenesis stage; (2) “Volcanic lithic‐rich dissolution facies (VLDF)” was the characteristic of weak compaction at the early diagenetic stage and intense dissolution and weak cementation of middle diagenesis stage; and (3) “Calcareous cemented facies (CCF)” and (4) “carbonaceous‐laminated strongly compacted dense facies (CLCF)” underwent strong cementation and compaction respectively at the early diagenetic stage resulting in a tight reservoir. Dissolution processes, primarily driven by acidic fluids from coal‐bearing strata, enhance secondary porosity development, particularly in feldspar and volcanic rock fragments. However, in certain lithofacies, these improvements are offset by extensive calcite and siderite cementation, reducing permeability and hindering fluid flow. The study concludes that the diagenetic heterogeneity plays a critical role in reservoir quality variation across the Badaowan Formation, with the findings providing valuable insights into the differential diagenesis evolution of reservoir quality for improving hydrocarbon exploration strategies in similar geological settings.

The Qinling orogenic belt, a central component of China's orogenic framework, hosts significant lead‐zinc (Pb‐Zn) deposits. This study presents a detailed analysis of their geological characteristics, spatio‐temporal distribution, geochemical signatures, and metallogenic processes. The principal mineralization events are associated with the Hercynian exhalative and Indosinian overprint stages. Four major Pb‐Zn mineral districts—Xicheng, Fengtai, Zhashan, and Zhenxun—are identified, with mineralization predominantly hosted in Middle Devonian carbonate and fine‐clastic sedimentary rocks. The ore bodies occur predominantly as stratiform or lens‐shaped masses, dominated by sphalerite, galena, pyrite, calcite, dolomite, and baryte in mineral composition. Sulphide minerals are notably enriched in critical metals such as cadmium (Cd), germanium (Ge), gallium (Ga), and thallium (Tl), underscoring substantial economic resource potential. Geochemical analysis reveals the involvement of sedimentary‐reworking processes, with sphalerite Zn/Cd ratios indicative of medium‐ to low‐temperature mineralization (100°C–250°C). This is consistent with fluid inclusion analyses, which reveal homogenization temperatures ranging from 100°C to 250°C and salinities of 3–15 wt% NaCl equiv. Sulphur isotope compositions (δ³⁴S) span −9.81‰ to 29.3‰, with the majority falling within 6.24‰–16.91‰. These data indicate marine or stratiform sulphate as the primary sulphur source, with thermochemical sulphate reduction (TSR) identified as the dominant sulphur reduction mechanism. Lead isotopic signatures exhibit mixed crustal‐mantle sources. Carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen (CHO) isotope data demonstrate that ore‐forming fluids have a mixed origin, primarily derived from seawater and organic‐derived fluids, with later contributions from magmatic and metamorphic fluids. A dynamic metallogenic model termed “early sedimentary exhalation followed by late‐stage multistage tectonic‐fluid coupling” is proposed. The research systematically characterises the spatial distribution patterns and metallogenic features of Pb‐Zn ore belts, providing critical guidance for future exploration targeting and resource assessment in the Qinling orogenic belt.

Charnockite is one of the conspicuous lithologies in Precambrian granulite terranes, and isotope studies on them can help better understand regional tectonics. Here, we present new petrological, geochemical, and zircon U‐Pb and Lu‐Hf isotopic data for charnockite and associated felsic/mafic orthogneisses from the Northern Marginal Zone (NMZ) of the Limpopo Complex, a Neoarchean orogen regarded to have been formed by the collision of the Zimbabwe and the Kaapvaal Cratons in southern Africa. The REE and trace element patterns reveal volcanic arc affinity for the charnockites. Oscillatory‐zoned and near‐concordant zircons from the charnockites yielded weighted‐mean ²⁰⁷Pb/²⁰⁶Pb and concordia intercept ages of 2691 ± 6 to 2640 ± 16 and 2607 ± 55 Ma, respectively. The age of felsic orthogneiss (2628 ± 16 Ma) is nearly consistent with those of the charnockites. Zircons from the mafic granulite, which occurs as a layer parallel to the foliation of the 2607 Ma charnockite and shows arc‐magmatic geochemical signatures such as Nb, P, and Zr depletion, yielded a weighted‐mean age of 2607 ± 16 Ma. As both charnockite and the protolith of the mafic granulite from the same locality show consistent magmatic crystallisation ages, bimodal magmatism under a magmatic‐arc setting is inferred. Zircons from a Chilimanzi Suite Granite (Zimbabwe Granite) of the Zimbabwe Craton adjacent to the NMZ show a weighted‐mean ²⁰⁷Pb/²⁰⁶Pb age of 2607 ± 35 Ma and a concordia‐intercept age of 2627 ± 36 Ma, which is comparable with the age range of charnockite. Therefore, the charnockite probably corresponds to the lower‐crustal equivalent of the Chilimanzi Suite Granite. The syn‐ to post‐tectonic Razi Granite from the NMZ‐Zimbabwe Craton boundary yielded a weighted‐mean age of 2542 ± 16 Ma, which marks the youngest intrusion event in this region. Lu‐Hf isotopic data of magmatic zircon cores from the Neoarchean charnockite, felsic orthogneiss, Zimbabwe Granite, and Razi Granite samples all show negative εHf(t) values (−11.18 to −2.20) with TDMC ages of 3699–3158 Ma, suggesting their protolith formation by crustal recycling in an arc setting through partial melting of Eo‐ to Paleoarchean crustal components such as the Tokwe Segment of the Zimbabwe Craton. Our new data thus support northward subduction of the oceanic plate underneath the proto‐Zimbabwe Craton, and the southern margin of the proto‐Zimbabwe Craton corresponds to a continental arc.

The Nanpu Sag, located in the Bohai Bay Basin of eastern China, is a significant reservoir of natural gas resources. However, a comprehensive understanding of the overarching natural gas accumulation model in this region is lacking. This study conducted natural gas geochemical and isotopic composition analyses on 290 samples from 30 wells in the Nanpu Sag to study the origin and genetic types of natural gas, revealing that the Eocene Shahejie Formation (Es) is the main source rock, clarifying the vertical migration characteristics and establishing two accumulation models to guide future exploration strategies. The natural gas in the Nanpu Sag is dominated by methane, with contents ranging from 44.89% to 98.60%. The locally high content of non‐hydrocarbon components is due to the widespread development of fracture systems within the depression, which directly connect the deep and shallow layers. By evaluating the relationship between the natural gas vitrinite reflectance (Ro) and the source rock Ro and then comparing the gas types to the source types, we ascertain that the primary source of natural gas stems from the third member of the Shahejie Formation (Es3) source rock. The methane content and carbon isotope values of methane variations highlight the primary migration traits from Es3 and the first member of the Shahejie Formation (Es1) to adjacent strata. Considering the faults and magmatic activity in the study area, combined with the characteristics of natural gas migration, we have summarised two gas accumulation models: magma‐dominated accumulation and magma/fault co‐controlled accumulation.

The present study provides the nexus between green technology, renewable energy systems and sustainable economic growth in China by assessing comprehensive time series data from 1990 to 2021. It employs quantile‐on‐quantile regression and the Augmented Dickey–Fuller test to assess how policies promoting green technology and renewable energy systems impact China's sustainable economic trajectory towards building a low‐carbon economy for climate change mitigation. The results reveal that all variables become stationary at first difference, except for green technology. There is a positive correlation between green technology, renewable energy systems and sustainable economic growth. Notably, an increase in the rate of green technology and resource management efficiency tends to increase economic growth, emphasising their transformative potential for fostering sustainability. In contrast, the increase in interest rates hinders economic growth. Furthermore, inflation and gross capital formation exhibit positive associations with sustainable economic growth. Policymakers should focus on transition to a low‐carbon economy through targeted resource allocation for low‐carbon technologies and the policies promoting energy efficiency, especially in the urban and industrial sectors. The current study also identifies limitations, like data constraints, methodological challenges and policy interaction complexity. By highlighting these limitations and further exploration can assist multi‐criteria decision making and policymakers to foster green, prospect and sustainable climate change.

Fossil rodent teeth are well known from the Neogene Siwalik Group of sediments and can provide insights into the evolution, taxonomy, diets and adaptations to various ecological niches. However, data on the microstructure of rodent incisors from the Indian Neogene Siwalik sediments is sparse compared to that on molars. We herein provide an analysis of enamel microstructures (in both transverse and longitudinal sections) of a selected few rodent incisors from the late Miocene (~10–11 Ma) Siwalik sediments at Dunera, Punjab State, north India. Based on the microstructure analysis, the rodent incisors are identified as cf. Progonomys (murids), cf. Democricetodon (cricetids), cf. Sayimys (ctenodactylids) and cf. Tamias (sciurids). The identified cf. Progonomys, cf. Democricetodon and cf. Tamias are represented by uniserial Hunter‐Schreger Bands, whereas cf. Sayimys shows multiserial Hunter‐Schreger Bands. Besides taxonomy, the functional and ecological significance of these rodents have been studied using enamel crystallite patterns because the microstructural change(s) in incisor enamel are generally linked to the variety of diets consumed by these mammals. In our analysis, the absence of modified radial enamel in the incisors of cf. Progonomys, cf. Democricetodon, and cf. Sayimys suggests that these rodents plausibly consumed a soft diet comprising of leaves, flowers, seeds, fleshy roots and insects, while the presence of specialised three‐layered Schmelzmuster in the incisors of cf. Tamias suggests that the rodents may have preferred a diet composed of relatively harder parts such as acorns, walnuts, and hazelnuts.

Tectonic modifications of the Tertiary geologic succession in the North Assam Shelf (NAS) have impacted the basin's petroleum system, providing insights into the region's tectono‐stratigraphic framework. This research investigates the lithofacies variation and tectonic controls experienced by the Girujan Formation, which was deposited in the basin during the Upper Miocene. To achieve this, we integrated and interpreted outcrop and subsurface data to elucidate the litho‐tectonic controls during the Girujan interval in the basin. Specifically, outcrops from the Amguri and Tipongpani sections were analysed, and these findings were combined with petrophysical logs from drilled boreholes across the southwestern, central and southeastern parts of the NAS. Our observations reveal that while the Girujan Formation is characterised by mottled clay, significant lithological variation exists throughout the basin. In the western region, mottled clays—both sticky and non‐sticky—are interbedded with medium‐grained sand facies. In contrast, the central and eastern regions exhibit a dominance of sand lithology alongside clay facies. Notably, the thickness of the Girujan Formation increases from west to east across the basin, where lithological variations are structurally influenced by the tectonic activities of the Naga‐Margherita‐Disang Thrust sequences. Moreover, the Upper Miocene Girujan Formation exhibits significant lithological diversity, functioning variably as a cap rock in the western and central areas due to its clay content and intercalation with sand and shale/coal streaks, while in the eastern region, it is intermixed with sediments of the Barail and Tipam formations, which rendered it as a potential reservoir rock.

The geochemical signatures of trace elements in coal serve as crucial indicators of material sources and depositional environments during its formation. This study focused on 13 coal seams from the Longtan Formation in the Dahebian syncline, Guizhou, China. It involved industrial analysis, sulphur measurement, elemental profiling, coal ash composition analysis, maceral identification and trace element quantification. The research explored petrological, mineralogical, sedimentological and geochemical characteristics of coal samples to evaluate the vertical evolution of coal‐forming environments and variations in provenance within the Longtan Formation. The study investigated relationships between changes in depositional environments and material sources and developed a sedimentary filling model for the late Permian in western Guizhou. Key findings include: (1) The overall depositional environment of the Longtan Formation was predominantly humid and reducing, and the coal‐forming plants were mainly aquatic and herbaceous. However, the depositional environment in the upper segment is more stable than that in the lower segment, with a trend towards arid and oxidative conditions in the later depositional stages. (2) Instabilities in the depositional environment of the lower segment of the Longtan Formation could be attributed to magmatic dike eruptions and volcanic ash fallout from the Emeishan region. The shift towards arid and oxidative conditions during the later stages of deposition in the Longtan Formation might be linked to extensive acidic volcanic eruptions around the periphery of South China towards the end of the late Permian.

Carbonate rocks hold significant importance in investigating depositional environments. This paper reconstructs the paleoenvironment of carbonate rocks of the Majiagou Formation in the Ordos Basin through the analysis of trace elements and carbon–oxygen isotopes. The results indicate that high Sr/Cu ratios, low Rb/Sr ratios and the high paleotemperature (28.3°C) all reveal that carbonate rocks of the Fifth member of Majiagou Formation (the Ma5 member) were formed under arid and hot climatic conditions. V/(V + Ni), V/Cr, Ni/Co and U/Th values indicate that the sedimentary environment of the Ma5 member was oxic–suboxic, likely due to the water‐retreat period during which the sedimentary water was relatively shallow and less reducing. High Sr/Ba ratios, high paleosalinity Z values and salinity S values all suggest that the carbonate rocks formed in a high‐salinity marine environment. Comprehensive studies show that during the deposition of the Ma5 stratum, the basement experienced uplift coupled with regressive sea‐level conditions. Meanwhile, the arid and hot climate, coupled with an oxic water environment, led to increased evaporation, elevated salinity and reduced sedimentation rates, making it unfavourable for the enrichment and preservation of organic matter. However, this evaporative environment promoted early penecontemporaneous dolomitization, enhancing intercrystalline porosity and permeability to develop high‐quality reservoirs in the Ma5 member. These findings provide a geochemical framework for identifying high‐quality carbonate reservoirs. These reservoirs offer storage space for natural gas, contributing to the formation of large‐scale gas deposits in the region.

The late Palaeocene climate cooling event has been reported in the organic‐rich sediments of the second member of the Funing Formation (E1f2) in the Subei Basin. However, there is a lack of in‐depth research on the constraints of paleoclimate changes on paleoenvironment and biological sources that remain unclear. This study presents detailed molecular geochemical analyses from the lacustrine mudstones of the E1f2 in the Subei Basin. The proxies of paleosalinity (gammacerane/C30 hopane, β‐carotene/n‐C20 and extended tricyclic terpane ratio) and redox conditions (pristane/phytane, phytane/n‐C18 and dibenzothiophene/phenanthrene) suggest climate cooling enhanced a higher salinity and anoxic (ferruginous) water column during the lower unit of the E1f2 deposition. As the climate shifted to warmer and more humid conditions, water salinity and reducing conditions noticeably decreased. Proxies for biological source (maximum n‐alkane, C27/C29 sterane, 4‐methylsterane/C29 regular sterane and steranes/hopanes) indicate that cooling climate constrained biodiversity. A transition is observed from the dominance of halophilic algae in the lower unit to a bloom of phytoplankton and prokaryotes in the upper unit. In addition, high abundance aryl isoprenoids and heavy organic carbon isotope compositions suggest the occurrence of photic zone anoxia in the lower unit, potentially providing a new case of green sulphur bacteria that thrived in a ferruginous lacustrine environment. Our research provides perspectives for the evolution of watermass conditions and biological sources in the Subei Basin during the late Palaeocene, highlighting the important role of climate changes in the evolution of lacustrine environment conditions.

Understanding the elemental concentration and distribution in coal has significant importance in assessing its mobility and behaviour during utilisation processes. The depositional environment of coal controls the concentrations of elements that can adversely affect human health and the environment. Thus, this study investigates the detailed mineralogy and elemental composition of Talcher coal, the largest coalfield in India, in order to gain insight into the mode of occurrence of elements and palaeodepositional conditions. The coal is enriched in detrital mineral matter and exhibits a high detrital/authigenic index. Quartz and kaolinite are abundant, while siderite, calcite, plagioclase, goethite, illite, dolomite, apatite, and Ti‐oxide have also been identified. This coal is enriched with Hg, Mo, Cr, and Th concerning the world hard coal. The Ti, Na, Cu, Cr, Rb, U, and Th have a strong association with silicate minerals. The Sr, K, Mg, Ca, and P exhibit both carbonate and phosphate affinities, whereas Fe, S, and Co are mostly associated with organic matter. Similarly, Mn, Ba, Ni, Zn, Pb, Cd, Mo, As, and Nb display both organic and inorganic affinities. The inorganic matters in coal are predominantly derived from intermediate rocks and have undergone strong weathering. Various elemental proxies suggest that the coal is formed predominantly in a freshwater depositional environment under a fluctuating oxygenating conditions. The Sr/Cu and Rb/Sr ratios have implied the prevalence of a warm humid climate with intermittent transitional warm to dry climatic conditions during coal formation. This research will be helpful in future palaeowetland research as well as understanding the behaviour of trace elements during coal utilisation.

In this comprehensive study, which was conducted based on data obtained from the Ömerler Field İğdekuzu underground mine located in the Tunçbilek Basin (Kütahya/W. Turkey), the aim was to reveal the organic matter content, origin, thermal maturation level, depositional environment, and conditions of Miocene‐aged coals. Coal samples collected from the underground coal mine were subjected to proximate analysis, Rock‐Eval pyrolysis/Total organic carbon (TOC), gas chromatography (GC), gas chromatography–mass spectrometry analysis (GC–MS) of aromatic and saturated biomarkers and extraction analysis. On an air‐dry basis, the average moisture (Mad), volatile matter (Vad), ash (Aad), fixed carbon (FCad) and total sulphur contents of coals are 2.79%, 33.93%, 18.71%, 44.31% and 1.40%, respectively. TOC content is so high; the highest mean TOC content is 86.75% calculated in the upper coal seam, followed by the middle seam with 85.14% and the lower seam with 79.01%. In the GC–MS of the coal samples, the n‐alkane distribution varies between C12 and C36. The lowest homohopane index (HHI) value was calculated as 0.02 for OR‐5, and the highest HHI value was 0.05 for TB‐8. The upper coal seam sample exhibits the order of C29>C28>C27 sterane (%), and the lower and middle coal seam samples exhibit the order of C29>C27>C28 sterane (%). The coal samples under study exhibit early mature oil window behaviour according to all geochemical maturity parameters. These coals indicate a mixed organic matter of Type II/III and III kerogens, as demonstrated by medium and long‐chain n‐alkanes, terrestrial/aquatic organic matter ratios (TAR), aquatic plants to terrestrial plants ratios (Paq), C24 Tet/C26 Tri and C19/C23 Tri ratios, and distributions of C27–29 ααα20R, likely deposited in a paralic, oxic‐dyoxic transitional environment. Although the TOC value of the Miocene‐aged coal samples is so high, they have not yet reached the level of producing hydrocarbons due to low and medium hydrogen index (HI), low quality index (QI), production index (PI), and bitumen index (BI) values, but it has been evaluated that they have the potential to produce gas.

This paper aims to address the controversy surrounding the occurrence state, enrichment and precipitation mechanism of gold in the Shuiyindong gold deposit, which has been extensively discussed by several authors. To this end, pyrite and arsenopyrite in the high‐grade ores of the deposit were considered as the research objects. Scanning electron microscopy (SEM) and electron probe microanalysis (EPMA) were used to determine the morphology and elemental content of the growth zonal of pyrite and arsenopyrite–pyrite aggregates. The occurrence and distribution of Au was analysed, and its enrichment and precipitation mechanisms are discussed herein. The findings of this paper indicate that gold mainly occurs in the growth annulus of pyrite and arsenopyrite of the pyrite–arsenopyrite aggregate. Furthermore, the emergence of ‘giant grains’ (200 μm) of ‘native gold’ was observed. Gold primarily participates in the lattice structure of pyrite and arsenopyrite in the form of Au⁺, but also occurs less commonly as Au⁰. Moreover, ‘giant grains’ of natural gold were observed in host rocks exhibiting dolomitisation and/or calcilisation, and in quartz veinlets. Notably, Au⁺ mainly replaces the S of pyrite and arsenopyrite by isomorphism in a relatively closed environment, whereas Au⁰ and native gold form by the rapid precipitation of Au‐rich saturated and supersaturated hydrothermal fluids in a relatively open environment.

The Liwu Group is located in the core of the Taka, Jianglang and Changqiang domes, and is an important tectono‐stratigraphic unit in the southern Songpan‐Ganze flysch basin. The Songpan‐Ganze Orogenic Belt (SGOB) is bounded by the South China, North China and Qiangtang blocks, and forms the eastern margin of the Tibetan Plateau. The Liwu Group is mainly composed of meta‐clastic/−igneous rocks. We conducted an integrated study of field geology, petrology, geochemistry, and geochronology on representative metasedimentary rocks from the Liwu Group to understand the tectonic evolution of the Songpan‐Ganze Orogenic Belt (SGOB) and the western Yangtze Block. Detrital zircon U–Pb dating on the meta‐clastic rocks yielded age populations of ca. 2472 Ma, 964 Ma, 791 Ma, 535 Ma and 466 Ma, constraining the maximum deposition age at ~466 Ma. Low‐medium chemical index of alteration (CIA = 36–80), relatively high index of compositional variability (ICV = 0.52–1.35), and the positive Zr/Sc vs. Th/Sc correlation indicate low maturity and insignificant weathering. Whole‐rock geochemical data indicate that the sediment provenance was dominated by the late Archean–Paleoproterozoic Liwu Group felsic‐intermediate rocks. The sediments were likely deposited in an active continental margin setting during the early Palaeozoic. Regionally, the metasedimentary rocks in the SGOB were probably deposited in ca. 466–490 Ma, and the SGOB may have had similar early Palaeozoic geotectonic evolution in the western Yangtze Block. According to the detrital zircon U–Pb geochronology of the Liwu Group, we suggest a strong genetic link between the protolith formation and the Yangtze Block, and the features of the stratigraphic sedimentary environment and provenance in the Tethys‐Himalayan Ordovician system.

The imperative shift toward renewable energy sources is driven by escalating climate change concerns and the depletion of fossil fuels. Microbial fuel cells (MFCs) present a promising solution by converting organic matter into electricity through microbial metabolism. This study aims to develop a portable MFC capable of powering soil moisture sensors to enhance sustainable agricultural practices in remote regions of Malaysia. Cow manure and human waste were employed as substrates due to their high organic content and microbial diversity, which emphasises their potential in sustainable energy generation. Carbon sheet electrodes of varying sizes (7 cm × 5 cm and 3 cm × 5 cm) were tested to optimise electrochemical performance. Experimental results demonstrated that MFCs utilising cow manure with smaller electrodes (3 cm × 5 cm) exhibited superior performance, achieving an initial open‐circuit voltage of 0.495 V and stabilising at approximately 0.314 V after 120 h. The peak power density reached 5207 μW/m², significantly outperforming the human waste MFCs. The enhanced performance is attributed to the effective substrate degradation and efficient electron transfer facilitated by the cow manure substrate and optimised electrode surface area. While a single MFC unit does not generate sufficient current to directly power standard soil moisture sensors, strategic improvements such as increasing electrode dimensions, optimising chamber volume, and incorporating energy storage and voltage boosting circuits can render the system practical. This work underscores the potential of MFC technology in addressing energy scarcity in rural agricultural regions, aligning with global efforts toward renewable energy adoption and sustainable waste management. Future advancements in MFC design and integration hold promise for broader applicability in precision agriculture and beyond.

Since the Mesozoic, the southern margin of the Sichuan Basin has experienced multiple deformations due to the far‐field effects of geological events, including the westward subduction of the Paleo‐Pacific Plate and the collision between the Indian and Eurasian plates; it serves as a natural laboratory for investigating intracontinental deformation. Through detailed geological surveys, analysis of over 500 vector datasets, and paleostress inversion, we identified three significant deformations in this region during the Meso‐Cenozoic. Low‐temperature thermochronology data constrain the timing of these deformation and cooling‐exhumation events. The first phase occurred during the Late Mesozoic; in the early deformation stage, trough‐like folds developed outside the basin, accompanied by medium‐ to high‐angle SE‐dipping thrust faults in the cores of the anticlines, while a widely developed planar conjugate shear joints formed within the basin. In the later stage of deformation, the NW‐SE compression rotated to N‐S due to boundary fault activation, resulting in the formation of nearly E‐W trending folds within the basin. The deformation was likely induced by multiple NW‐directional detachments and progressive compression in the Xuefeng orogenic belt. The second phase, characterised by NW‐trending box folds and SW‐dipping, moderate‐ to high‐angle thrust faults, took place from the Eocene to early Miocene, induced by compressional forces from the India–Eurasian plate collision, leading to NE‐SW compression and significant exposure in the Dalou and Daliang Mountains, with some involvement of basin strata. The third phase, characterised by NE‐trending tight anticlines and high‐angle reverse faults NW dipping in the core of the anticlines since the mid‐Miocene, is linked to the eastward lateral extrusion of crustal material from the Tibetan Plateau towards the northwest margin of the Sichuan Basin, resulting in strong NW‐SE compression that likely impacts the basin's southern edge. These multiple deformations indicate two major shifts: the transition from the Marginal‐Pacific tectonic domain to the Tethys‐Himalayan domain, and the phased outward expansion of the Himalayan tectonic domain due to changes in the Tibetan Plateau's internal geodynamic setting since the Miocene. Understanding these deformations is crucial for elucidating the mechanisms of intracontinental deformation in the context of plate collision.

Solar saltworks often face challenging production conditions, including drastic thermodynamic condition changes. The major ionic evolution of the inland brine in Chott Melrhir saltwork has been studied with an indoor polythermal and isothermal at 35°C evaporation simulation, using phase diagrams and forward geochemical modelling. Hydrochemical and mineralogical analysis indicated that the brine under investigation exhibits an oceanic chemical character and follows a metastable evaporation path similar to that of seawater at 35°C. During the transport to the surface, the brine undergoes a drastic concentration, depositing major calcium content as gypsum. Evaporation yields significant quantities of kainite, magnesium sulphate salts and halite, the latter of which precipitates predominantly at the outset of the process along with minimal gypsum contents. Raw salt and washing brine analysis indicated that the interstitial brine was the source of the major ionic impurity, along with clay and sand, while gypsum and calcium ions were identified as solar evaporation impurities. The use of PHREEQC (pH-Redox Equilibrium C-programme) geochemical simulation software and Pitzer's database has enabled the precise proposal of a shift in pumping densities for solar evaporation feed brine of approximately 1.221 and for washing brine of approximately 1.227. This methodology may be tested for the purpose of overcoming significant challenges posed by major ionic impurities that producers may encounter during production in such environments. Moreover, the results have the potential to facilitate the expansion of production through the separation of other salts that may possess greater economic value, such as kainite in this case.