Electrochimica Acta

It is well established that the structural details of electrodes and their interaction with adsorbed enzyme influences the interfacial electron transfer rate. However, for nanostructured electrodes, it is likely that the structure also impacts on substrate flux near the adsorbed enzymes and thus catalytic activity. Furthermore, for enzymes converting macro-molecular substrates it is possible that the enzyme orientation determines the nature of interactions between the adsorbed enzyme and substrate and therefore catalytic rates. In essence the electrode may impede substrate access to the active site of the enzyme. We have tested these possibilities through studies of the catalytic performance of two enzymes adsorbed on topologically distinct electrode materials. Escherichia coli NrfA, a nitrite reductase, was adsorbed on mesoporous, nanocrystalline SnO2 electrodes. CymA from Shewanella oneidensis MR-1 reduces menaquinone-7 within 200 nm sized liposomes and this reaction was studied with the enzyme adsorbed on SAM modified ultra-flat gold electrodes.

Different approaches to enhancement of electrocatalytic activity of noble metal nanoparticles during oxidation of small organic molecules (namely potential fuels for low-temperature fuel cells such as methanol, ethanol and formic acid) are described. A physical approach to the increase of activity of catalytic nanoparticles (e.g. platinum or palladium) involves nanostructuring to obtain highly dispersed systems of high surface area. Recently, the feasibility of enhancing activity of noble metal systems through the formation of bimetallic (e.g. PtRu, PtSn, and PdAu) or even more complex (e.g. PtRuW, PtRuSn) alloys has been demonstrated. In addition to possible changes in the electronic properties of alloys, specific interactions between metals as well as chemical reactivity of the added components have been postulated. We address and emphasize here the possibility of utilization of noble metal and alloyed nanoparticles supported on robust but reactive high surface area metal oxides (e.g. WO3, MoO3, TiO2, ZrO2, V2O5, and CeO2) in oxidative electrocatalysis. This paper concerns the way in which certain inorganic oxides and oxo species can act effectively as supports for noble metal nanoparticles or their alloys during electrocatalytic oxidation of hydrogen and representative organic fuels. Among important issues are possible changes in the morphology and dispersion, as well as specific interactions leading to the improved chemisorptive and catalytic properties in addition to the feasibility of long time operation of the discussed systems.

Nanoporous anodic aluminum oxide (AAO) has been explored for various applications due to its regular cell arrangement and relatively easy fabrication processes. However, conventional two-step anodization based on self-organization only allows the fabrication of a few discrete cell sizes and formation of small domains of hexagonally packed pores. Recent efforts to pre-pattern aluminum followed with anodization significantly improve the regularity and available pore geometries in AAO, while systematic study of the anodization condition, especially the impact of acid composition on pore formation guided by nanoindentation is still lacking. In this work, we pre-patterned aluminium thin films using ordered monolayers of silica beads and formed porous AAO in a single-step anodization in phosphoric acid. Controllable cell sizes ranging from 280 nm to 760 nm were obtained, matching the diameters of the silica nanobead molds used. This range of cell size is significantly greater than what has been reported for AAO formed in phosphoric acid in the literature. In addition, the relationships between the acid concentration, cell size, pore size, anodization voltage and film growth rate were studied quantitatively. The results are consistent with the theory of oxide formation through an electrochemical reaction. Not only does this study provide useful operational conditions of nanoindentation induced anodization in phosphoric acid, it also generates significant information for fundamental understanding of AAO formation.

The potential for chemical reduction of hexavalent chromium Cr(VI) in contaminated water and formation of a stable precipitate by Zero Valent Iron (ZVI) anode electrolysis is evaluated in separated electrodes system. Oxidation of iron electrodes produces ferrous ions causing the development of a reducing environment in the anolyte, chemical reduction of Cr(VI) to Cr(III) and formation of stable iron-chromium precipitates. Cr(VI) transformation rates are dependent on the applied electric current density. Increasing the electric current increases the transformation rates; however, the process is more efficient under lower volumetric current density (for example 1.5 mA L(-1) in this study). The transformation follows a zero order rate that is dependent on the electric current density. Cr(VI) transformation occurs in the anolyte when the electrodes are separated as well as when the electrolytes (anolyte/catholyte) are mixed, as used in electrocoagulation. The study shows that the transformation occurs in the anolyte as a result of ferrous ion formation and the product is a stable Fe(15)Cr(5)(OH)(60) precipitate.

Electroreductive desorption of a highly ordered self-assembled monolayer (SAM) formed by the araliphatic thiol (4-(4-(4-pyridyl)phenyl)phenyl)methanethiol leads to a concurrent rapid hydrogen evolution reaction (HER). The desorption process and resulting interfacial structure were investigated by voltammetric techniques, in situ spectroscopic ellipsometry, and in situ vibrational sum-frequency-generation (SFG) spectroscopy. Voltammetric experiments on SAM-modified electrodes exhibit extraordinarily high peak currents, which di er between Au(111) and polycrystalline Au substrates. Association of reductive desorption with HER is shown to be the origin of the observed excess cathodic charges. The studied SAM preserves its two-dimensional order near Au surface throughout a fast voltammetric scan even when the vertex potential is set several hundred millivolt beyond the desorption potential. A model is developed for the explanation of the observed rapid HER involving ordering and pre-orientation of water present in the nanometer-sized reaction volume between desorbed SAM and the Au electrode, by the structurally extremely stable monolayer, leading to the observed catalysis of the HER.

The interactions of arsenic species with platinum and porous carbon electrodes were investigated with an electrochemical quartz crystal microbalance (EQCM) and cyclic voltammetry in alkaline solutions. It is shown that the redox reactions in arsenic-containing solutions, due to arsenic reduction/deposition, oxidation/desorption, and electrocatalyzed oxidation by Pt can be readily distinguished with the EQCM. This approach was used to show that the arsenic redox reactions on the carbon electrode are mechanistically similar to that on the bare Pt electrode. This could not be concluded with just classical cyclic voltammetry alone due to the obfuscation of the faradaic features by the large capacitative effects of the carbon double layer.For the porous carbon electrode, a continual mass loss was always observed during potential cycling, with or without arsenic in the solution. This was attributed to electrogasification of the carbon. The apparent mass loss per cycle was observed to decrease with increasing arsenic concentration due to a net mass increase in adsorbed arsenic per cycle that increased with arsenic concentration, offsetting the carbon mass loss. Additional carbon adsorption sites involved in arsenic species interactions are created during electrogasification, thereby augmenting the net uptake of arsenic per cycle.It is demonstrated that EQCM, and in particular the information given by the behavior of the time derivative of the mass vs. potential, or massogram, is very useful for distinguishing arsenic species interactions with carbon electrodes. It may also prove to be effective for investigating redox/adsorption/desorption behavior of other species in solution with carbon materials as well.

This chapter focuses on multielectron reactions in organized assemblies of molecules at the liquid/liquid interface. We describe the thermodynamic and kinetic parameters of such reactions, including the structure of the reaction centers, charge movement along the electron transfer pathways, and the role of electric double layers in artificial photosynthesis. Some examples of artificial photosynthesis at the oil/water interface are considered, including water photooxidation to the molecular oxygen, oxygen photoreduction, photosynthesis of amphiphilic compounds and proton evolution by photochemical processes.

Electrochemical deposition of crosslinked oxo-cyanoruthenate, Ru-O/CN-O, from a mixture of RuCl3 and K4Ru(CN)6 is known to yield a film on glassy carbon that promotes oxidations by a combination of electron and oxygen transfer. Layer-by-layer (LbL) deposition of this species and of a film formed by cycling of the electrode potential in a ZrO2 solution systematically increases the number of catalytically active sites of the Ru-O/CN-O on the electrode. The evaluation of the electrocatalytic activity was by cyclic voltammetric oxidation of cysteine at pH 2. Plots of the anodic peak current vs. the square root of scan rate were indicative of linear diffusion control of this oxidation, even in the absence of ZrO2, but the slopes of these linear plots increased with bilayer number, n, of (ZrO2 | Ru-O/CN-O) n . The latter observation is hypothesized to be due to an increased number of active sites for a given geometric electrode area, but proof required further study. To optimize utilization of the catalyst and to provide a size-exclusion characteristic to the electrode, the study was extended to LbL deposition of the composite in 50-nm pores of an organically modified silica film deposited by electrochemically assisted sol-gel processing using surface-bound poly(styrene sulfonate) nanospheres as a templating agent.

A combination of direct electrochemical reduction and in-situ alkaline hydrolysis has been proposed to decompose energetic contaminants such as 1,3,5-Trinitroperhydro- 1,3,5-triazine and 2,4,6-Trinitrotoluene (RDX) in deep aquifers. This process utilizes natural groundwater convection to carry hydroxide produced by an upstream cathode to remove the contaminant at the cathode as well as in the pore water downstream as it migrates toward the anode. Laboratory evaluation incorporated fundamental principles of column design coupled with reactive contaminant modeling including electrokinetics transport. Batch and horizontal sand-packed column experiments included both alkaline hydrolysis and electrochemical treatment to determine RDX decomposition reaction rate coefficients. The sand packed columns simulated flow through a contaminated aquifer with a seepage velocity of 30.5 cm/day. Techniques to monitor and record the transient electric potential, hydroxide transport and contaminant concentration within the column were developed. The average reaction rate coefficients for both the alkaline batch (0.0487 hr-1) and sand column (0.0466 hr-1) experiments estimated the distance between the cathode and anode required to decompose 0.5 mg/L RDX to the USEPA drinking water lifetime Health Advisory level of 0.002 mg/L to be 145 and 152 cm.

Battery systems have been developed that provide years of service for implantable medical devices. The primary systems utilize lithium metal anodes with cathode systems including iodine, manganese oxide, carbon monofluoride, silver vanadium oxide and hybrid cathodes. Secondary lithium ion batteries have also been developed for medical applications where the batteries are charged while remaining implanted. While the specific performance requirements of the devices vary, some general requirements are common. These include high safety, reliability and volumetric energy density, long service life, and state of discharge indication. Successful development and implementation of these battery types has helped enable implanted biomedical devices and their treatment of human disease.

We report here the successful fabrication of an improved Bi film wrapped single walled carbon nanotubes modified glassy carbon electrode (Bi/SWNTs/GCE) as a highly sensitive platform for ultratrace Cr(VI) detection through catalytic adsorptive cathodic stripping voltammetry (AdCSV). The introduction of negatively charged SWNTs extraordinarily decreased the size of Bi particles to nanoscale due to electrostatic interaction which made Bi(III) cations easily attracted onto the surface of SWNTs in good order, leading to higher quality of Bi film deposition. The obtained Bi/SWNTs composite was well characterized with electrochemical impedance spectroscopy (EIS), scanning electron microscopy (SEM), the static water contact angle and the voltammetric measurements. The results demonstrates the improvements in the quality of Bi film deposited on the surface of SWNTs such as faster speed of electron transfer, more uniform and smoother morphology, better hydrophilicity and higher stripping signal. Using diethylene triaminepentaacetic acid (DTPA) as complexing ligand, the fabricated electrode displays a well-defined and highly sensitive peak for the reduction of Cr(III)-DTPA complex at -1.06 V (vs. Ag/AgCl) with a linear concentration range of 0-25 nM and a fairly low detection limit of 0.036 nM. No interference was found in the presence of coexisting ions, and good recoveries were achieved for the analysis of a river sample. In comparison to previous approaches using Bi film modified GCE, the newly designed electrode exhibits better reproducibility and repeatability towards aqueous detection of trace Cr(VI) and appears to be very promising as the basis of a highly sensitive and selective voltammetric procedure for Cr(VI) detection at trace level in real samples.

Biological transformation of tetrachloroethylene (PCE) in silty clay samples by ionic injection of lactate under electric fields is evaluated. To prepare contaminated samples, a silty clay slurry was mixed with PCE, inoculated with KB-1(®) dechlorinators and was consolidated in a 40 cm long cell. A current density between 5.3 and 13.3 A m(-2) was applied across treated soil samples while circulating electrolytes containing 10 mg L(-1) lactate concentration between the anode and cathode compartments to maintain neutral pH and chemically reducing boundary conditions. The total adsorbed and aqueous PCE was degraded in the soil to trichloroethylene (TCE), cis-1,2-dichloroethene (cis-DCE), vinyl chloride (VC) and ethene in 120 d, which is about double the time expected for transformation. Lactate was delivered into the soil by a reactive transport rate of 3.7 cm(2) d(-1) V(-1). PCE degradation in the clay samples followed zero order transformation rates ranging from 1.5 to 5 mg L(-1) d(-1) without any significant formation of TCE. cis-DCE transformation followed first order transformation rates of 0.06 to 0.10 per day. A control experiment conducted with KB-1 and lactate, but without electricity did not show any significant lactate buildup or cis-DCE transformation because the soil was practically impermeable (hydraulic conductivity of 2×10(-7) cm s(-1)). It is concluded that ionic migration will deliver organic additives and induce biological activity and complete PCE transformation in clay, even though the transformation occurs under slower rates compared to ideal conditions.

The oxygen exchange kinetics of platinum on yttria-stabilized zirconia (YSZ) was investigated by means of geometrically well-defined Pt microelectrodes. By variation of electrode size and temperature it was possible to separate two temperature regimes with different geometry dependencies of the polarization resistance. At higher temperatures (550–700 °C) an elementary step located close to the three phase boundary (TPB) with an activation energy of ∼1.6 eV was identified as rate limiting. At lower temperatures (300–400 °C) the rate limiting elementary step is related to the electrode area and exhibited a very low activation energy in the order of 0.2 eV. From these observations two parallel pathways for electrochemical oxygen exchange are concluded. The nature of these two elementary steps is discussed in terms of equivalent circuits. Two combinations of parallel rate limiting reaction steps are found to explain the observed geometry dependencies: (i) Diffusion through an impurity phase at the TPB in parallel to diffusion of oxygen through platinum – most likely along Pt grain boundaries – as area-related process. (ii) Co-limitation of oxygen diffusion along the Pt|YSZ interface and charge transfer at the interface with a short decay length of the corresponding transmission line (as TPB-related process) in parallel to oxygen diffusion through platinum.

Microwave induced reactions for immobilizing platinum and palladium nanoparticles on multiwall carbon nanotubes are presented. The resulting hybrid materials were used as catalysts for direct methanol, ethanol and formic acid oxidation in acidic as well as alkaline media. The electrodes are formed by simply mixing the hybrids with graphite paste, thus using a relatively small quantity of the precious metal. We report Tafel slopes and apparent activation energies at different potentials and temperatures. Ethanol electro-oxidation with the palladium hybrid showed an activation energy of 7.64 kJmol(-1) which is lower than those observed for other systems. This system is economically attractive because Pd is significantly less expensive than Pt and ethanol is fast evolving as a commercial biofuel.

This review describes homogeneous and heterogeneous catalytic reduction of dioxygen with metal complexes focusing on the catalytic two-electron reduction of dioxygen to produce hydrogen peroxide. Whether two-electron reduction of dioxygen to produce hydrogen peroxide or four-electron O2-reduction to produce water occurs depends on the types of metals and ligands that are utilized. Those factors controlling the two processes are discussed in terms of metal-oxygen intermediates involved in the catalysis. Metal complexes acting as catalysts for selective two-electron reduction of oxygen can be utilized as metal complex-modified electrodes in the electrocatalytic reduction to produce hydrogen peroxide. Hydrogen peroxide thus produced can be used as a fuel in a hydrogen peroxide fuel cell. A hydrogen peroxide fuel cell can be operated with a one-compartment structure without a membrane, which is certainly more promising for the development of low-cost fuel cells as compared with two compartment hydrogen fuel cells that require membranes. Hydrogen peroxide is regarded as an environmentally benign energy carrier because it can be produced by the electrocatalytic two-electron reduction of O2, which is abundant in air, using solar cells; the hydrogen peroxide thus produced could then be readily stored and then used as needed to generate electricity through the use of hydrogen peroxide fuel cells.

Polymer chain orientation in tensile-stretched poly(ethylene oxide)-lithium trifluoromethanesulfonate polymer electrolytes are investigated with polarized infrared spectroscopy as a function of the degree of strain and salt composition (ether oxygen atom to lithium ion ratios of 20:1, 15:1, and 10:1). The 1359 and 1352 cm(-1) bands are used to probe the crystalline PEO and P(EO)(3)LiCF(3)SO(3) domains, respectively, allowing a direct comparison of chain orientation for the two phases. Two-dimensional correlation FT-IR spectroscopy indicates that the two crystalline domains align at the same rate as the polymer electrolytes are stretched. Quantitative measurements of polymer chain orientation obtained through dichroic infrared spectroscopy show that chain orientation predominantly occurs between strain values of 150% and 250%, regardless of salt composition investigated. There are few changes in chain orientation for either phase when the films are further elongated to a strain of 300%; however, the PEO domains are slightly more oriented at the high strain values. The spectroscopic data are consistent with stretching-induced melt-recrystallization of the unoriented crystalline domains in the solution-cast polymer films. Stretching the films pulls polymer chains from the crystalline domains, which subsequently recrystallize with the polymer helices parallel to the stretch direction. If lithium ion conduction in crystalline polymer electrolytes is viewed as consisting of two major components (facile intra-chain lithium ion conduction and slow helix-to-helix inter-grain hopping), then alignment of the polymer helices will affect the ion conduction pathways for these materials by reducing the number of inter-grain hops required to migrate through the polymer electrolyte.

Patterned copper sulfide (Cu(x)S) microstructures on Si (1 1 1) wafers were successfully fabricated by a relatively simple solution growth method using copper sulfate, ethylenediaminetetraacetate and sodium thiosulfate aqueous solutions as precursors. The Cu(x)S particles were selectively deposited on a patterned self-assembled monolayer of 3-aminopropyltriethoxysilane regions created by photolithography. To obtain high quality Cu(x)S films, preparative conditions such as concentration, proportion, pH and temperature of the precursor solutions were optimized. Various techniques such as optical microscopy, atomic force microscopy (AFM), X-ray diffraction, optical absorption and scanning electrochemical microscopy (SECM) were employed to examine the topography and properties of the micro-patterned Cu(x)S films. Optical microscopy and AFM results indicated that the Cu(x)S micro-pattern possessed high selectivity and clear edge resolution. From combined X-ray diffraction analysis and optical band gap calculations we conclude that Cu(9)S(5) (digenite) was the main phase within the resultant Cu(x)S film. Both SECM image and cyclic voltammograms confirmed that the Cu(x)S film had good electrical conductivity. Moreover, from SECM approach curve analysis, the apparent electron-transfer rate constant (k) in the micro-pattern of Cu(x)S dominated surface was estimated as 0.04 cm/s. The SECM current map showed high edge acuity of the micro-patterned Cu(x)S.

The precipitation and growth of AgCl on silver in physiological NaCl solution were investigated. AgCl was found to form at bottom of scratches on the surface which may be the less effective sites for diffusion or the favorable sites for heterogeneous nucleation. Patches of silver chloride expanded laterally on the substrate until a continuous film formed. The ionic transport path through this newly formed continuous film was via spaces between AgCl patches. As the film grew, the spaces between AgCl patches closed and ion transport was primarily via micro-channels running through AgCl patches. The decrease of AgCl layer conductivity during film growth were attributed to the clogging of micro-channels or decrease in charge carrier concentration inside the micro-channels. Under thin AgCl layer, i.e. on the order of a micrometer, the dissolution of silver substrate was under mixed activation-Ohmic control. Under thick AgCl layer, i.e. on the order of tens of micrometers, the dissolution of silver substrate was mediated by the Ohmic resistance of AgCl layer.

Substitution of a metal center of phosphomolybdate, PMo(12)O(40) (3-) (PMo(12)), or its tungsten analogue with dirhodium(II) and subsequent stabilization of gold nanoparticles, AuNPs, with Rh(2)PMo(11) is demonstrated. The AuNP-Rh(2)PMo(11) mediates oxidations but adsorbs too weakly for direct modification of electrode materials. Stability in quiescent solution was achieved by modifying glassy carbon (GC) with 3-aminopropyltriethoxysilane (APTES) and then electrostatically assembling AuNP-Rh(2)PMo(11). At GC|APTES|AuNP-Rh(2)PMo(11), cyclic voltammetry showed the expected set of three reversible peak-pairs for PMo(11) in the range -0.2 to 0.6 vs (Ag/AgCl)/V and the reversible Rh(II,III) couple at 1.0 vs (Ag/AgCl)/V. The presence of AuNPs increased the current for the reduction of bromate by a factor of 2.5 relative to that at GC|Rh(2)PMo(11), and the electrocatalytic oxidation of methionine displayed characteristics of synergism between the AuNP and Rh(II). To stabilize AuNP-Rh(2)PMo(11) on a surface in a flow system, GC was modified by electrochemically assisted deposition of a sol-gel with templated 10-nm pores prior to immobilizing the catalyst in the pores. The resulting electrode permitted determination of bromate by flow-injection amperometry with a detection limit of 4.0 × 10(-8) mol dm(-3).

We investigate the oscillatory electro-oxidation of formic acid on platinum in a microchip-based dual-electrode cell with microfluidic flow control. The main dynamical features of current oscillations on single Pt electrode that had been observed in macro-cells are reproduced in the microfabricated electrochemical cell. In dual-electrode configuration nearly in-phase synchronized current oscillations occur when the reference/counter electrodes are placed far away from the microelectrodes. The synchronization disappears with close reference/counter electrode placements. We show that the cause for synchronization is weak albeit important, bidirectional electrical coupling between the electrodes; therefore the unidirectional mass transfer interactions are negligible. The experimental design enables the investigation of the dynamical behavior in micro-electrode arrays with well-defined control of flow of the electrolyte in a manner where the size and spacing of the electrodes can be easily varied.

Here we review the recent applications of ion transfer (IT) at the interface between two immiscible electrolyte solutions (ITIES) for electrochemical sensing and imaging. In particular, we focus on the development and recent applications of the nanopipet-supported ITIES and double-polymer-modified electrode, which enable the dynamic electrochemical measurements of IT at nanoscopic and macroscopic ITIES, respectively. High-quality IT voltammograms are obtainable using either technique to quantitatively assess the kinetics and dynamic mechanism of IT at the ITIES. Nanopipet-supported ITIES serves as an amperometric tip for scanning electrochemical microscopy to allow for unprecedentedly high-resolution electrochemical imaging. Voltammetric ion sensing at double-polymer-modified electrodes offers high sensitivity and unique multiple-ion selectivity. The promising future applications of these dynamic approaches for bioanalysis and electrochemical imaging are also discussed.

It is demonstrated through the cathodic reduction of nickel manganese spinels of Ni0,6Mn2,4O4 formulae that is possible to increase the electrochemical reduction by replacement of manganese ions and nickel ions by copper ions. The best performance is shown by Cu0,5Ni0,5Mn2O4 spinel. The study of some physicochemical properties of oxides let us to know the tetrahedral and octahedral sites. The reduction reaction occur on octahedral sites formed by Mn4+ ions associated with Mn3+ ions. The electrochemical reactivity of oxides is likely to occur through the redox processes in solid state between nickel (II) and manganese (III) ions on octahedral sites on the one hand, and between octahedral copper (II) and tetrahedral manganese (III) ions on the other hand. These redox processes in solid state are coupled with the electrochemical reduction of the oxides studied.

Effects of sulphate (SO42−) ion additives on the pitting corrosion of pure aluminium (Al) have been investigated in aqueous 0.01 M NaCl solution as a function of SO42− ion concentration using potentiodynamic polarisation experiment, ac impedance spectroscopy, electrochemical quartz crystal microbalance technique and abrading electrode technique. The addition of SO42− ions to NaCl solution raised the pitting potential (Epit) of pure Al in value and simultaneously the anodic current density at potentials much higher than the Epit on the polarisation curves. This implies that SO42− ions impede the initiation of pit on pure Al surface below the Epit, but enhance the growth of pre-existing pits, which is validated by optical microscopy. It was found that the values of the Cl− ion-incorporated outer film resistance Rout,ox in SO42− ion-containing chloride solutions were much lower than those in SO42− ion-free solution, obtained from the impedance spectra measured at potentials below the Epit. The chloride peak disappeared from the Auger spectra in SO42− ion-containing solutions. The mass decay rate and pit growth rate b were observed to increase in values once the pits were formed in SO42− ion-containing chloride solutions. Based upon the above experimental results, it is suggested that SO42− ions retard the oxide film breakdown by Cl− ion incorporation into the film, while they accelerate the Al metal dissolution through the instantaneous formation of tunnels at the bottom of the pre-existing pits after the exposure of bare surface above the Epit.

For (Ti1−xVx)2Ni (x = 0.05, 0.1, 0.15, 0.2 and 0.3) ribbons, synthesized by arc-melting and subsequent melt-spinning techniques, an icosahedral quasicrystalline phase was present, either in the amorphous matrix or together with the stable Ti2Ni-type phase. With increasing x values, the maximum discharge capacity of the alloy electrodes increased until reached 271.3 mAh/g when x = 0.3. The cycling capacity retention rates for these electrodes were approximately 80% after a preliminary test of 30 consecutive cycles of charging and discharging. Ti1.7V0.3Ni alloy electrode displayed the best high-rate discharge ability of 82.7% at the discharge current density of 240 mA/g.

The LiNi0.5−xMn0.5−xCo2xO2 (0 < x ≤ 0.1) series was first prepared at 800 °C by the spray dry method. The structural and electrochemical characteristics of these compounds were also studied. The Co substitution seems to promote the formation of LiNi0.5−xMn0.5−xCo2xO2. In addition, the Co introduction in LiNi0.5Mn0.5O2 can not only reduce the cell polarization, but increase the reversible capacity. The LiNi0.5−xMn0.5−xCo2xO2 series shows an excellent cyclability and rate ability. After 50 cycles, LiNi0.425Mn0.425Co0.15O2 shows a reversible capacity of about 110 mAh g−1 at the rate of 1 mA cm−2 (100 mA g−1) in 3–4.6 V at room temperature and more than 140 mAh g−1 at the rate of 2 mA cm−2 (200 mA g−1) at 55 °C.