Archaeological and Anthropological Sciences

Here we make the case that the interment of twelve skeletons in a small Western Cape rock shelter should be viewed as a single event. We present evidence of the partially disarticulated, clearly overlapping arrangement of human remains and the radiocarbon dating results from the individuals that point to a hasty but coordinated burial at a critical moment in the prehistory of the Cape. The moment was marked by the earliest appearance of the pastoralist lifestyle in an area previously dominated by hunting and gathering (Sadr PLoS ONE 10(8):e0134215, 2015). Because, as others show (Dlamini et al., this volume), these interments are associated with peri-mortem violence, the demonstration of contemporaneity and entanglement implies a rare occurrence of so many deaths at a time when conflict between pastoralists and hunter-gatherers in the area seems likely. In describing the circumstances of bone recovery, the positioning of body parts and the associated radiocarbon ages, we lay the platform for further micro-stratigraphic, biological, genetic and isotopic studies of the twelve individuals and some contemplation on the nature of the event.

This paper contributes new data on animal management practices from the Greek Archaic and Classical periods. Management strategies and season of birth of caprines from the city of Argilos (ca. 655 − 357 BC) are established through the analysis of stable carbon and oxygen isotope ratios of sequentially sampled tooth enamel. The results reveal a variety of management regimes being practiced by farmers at ancient Argilos, with no observable differences in diet and herding strategies between the Archaic and Classical periods. The samples that provide season of birth data, however, suggest a possible distinction between the two periods. Births are centred around autumn/early winter in the Archaic period and late winter/spring during the Classical period and could be the result of the prioritisation of different commodities by farmers.

Evidence of violence has been documented previously in the late Holocene foraging communities of the south-western Cape of South Africa, but never suggested as a group attack by adversaries. Here we report on what appears to be a single violent event involving several individuals buried at the Faraoskop rock shelter. The human skeletal remains were reassessed for commingled parts and were re-assembled as individuals. Particular focus was placed on sex, age and osteological changes. The results show that the estimated number of individuals is 12 and not 14 as reported previously. Their preservation and completeness vary; eight have crania and four are without. Six individuals (50%) show peri-mortem fractures produced by localised blunt-force trauma to the skull or mandible; the particulars of the instruments remain unknown. No post-cranial remains show injuries. Five individuals with trauma are male and one is of unknown sex. With the exception of one, all fractures occur on the left side of the skull, which suggests that they were sustained through intentional rather than accidental action. Given that these traumas were most likely fatal, the presence of multiple blows on at least one individual (FK 2) implies an intention to kill. This case adds to the developing picture of violence among late Holocene foragers, though different in its higher prevalence of trauma in males than in females as reported previously. Together, the archaeological and bio-anthropological data from Faraoskop proposes that this incident might be the result of clashing between a hunter-gatherer group and a pastoralist one.

This article focuses on paleoparasitological analysis using microscopy and paleogenetics from 59 archaeological structures, comprising 51 latrines from the Hellenistic city of Delos, located in the Cyclades in the Aegean Sea. Among the analysed structures, 35 tested positive for one or more gastrointestinal helminth eggs, including Ascarididae, Trichocephalida, several Strongyle-types and one fluke egg. Subsequent paleogenetic analysis identified the presence of Ascaris sp., Trichuris trichiura and Enterobius vermicularis. To our knowledge, this is the only study of its kind covering almost the entire surface area of an ancient city, significantly demonstrating the reality of the parasitic burden experienced by an urban community in the Mediterranean basin during Antiquity.

Metallurgy has been defined as a pivotal activity in understanding of the development of El Argar society. Nonetheless, comprehensive studies of extractive metallurgical processes based on archaeometallurgical analyses remain lacking. This article examines the production remains found at the El Argar site of Laderas del Castillo, documented from 2150 to 1950 cal BC, including samples of slag, crucibles, copper prills and artefacts. Laderas del Castillo emerges as a key site for understanding the technology and organization of metallurgical production in the El Argar world. There are few sites with archaeometric analysis of metallurgical remains, and the present case allows for an almost complete view of the entire metallurgical chaîne opératoire in this period. Microstructural analyses of smelting remains by SEM-EDS reveal a technological tradition that mirrors the previous Copper Age one and the direct exploitation of complex arsenical copper ores with occasional copper sulphides. Despite the existence of closer mineralizations, lead isotope analyses show the exploitation of various copper resources and sources far from the settlement (Linares, the Interior of the Baetic Cordilleras and Almagrera, about 300, 200 and 140 km respectively). These active exchange networks in Laderas del Castillo reflect the same pattern found in the rest of the El Argar territory, which is based on the intensive exploitation of mineralizations in the interior of the Baetics and the Southeast of the peninsula. Some of these sources have also been observed in Copper Age metallurgy, suggesting that the mobility and exchange networks operating in the southeast during the El Argar period were rooted in earlier archaeological phases, indicating a wide and complex exchange network in the region.

Metallurgical analyses of copper-based artefacts recovered from the royal temple of Changbai Mountain Deity in Northeast China reveals industrial brass-production in 12th -13th centuries. Brass, which used to be imported from the West, had been converted to locally produced and extensively adopted as an alternative to bronze during this era. Compared with brass objects from the Taizicheng site in North China, the consistency in the zinc content shows a high level of technic uniformity, suggesting that localisation of brass-production may have emerged at an earlier stage. Bronze scrapes were employed to manufacture Cu-Zn-Sn alloy for certain purposes. Lead isotopic analysis implies a multi-centre provenance of zinc ores, spanning from North China to Northeast China, further specified by serials of historical texts. The divergence of value observed between bronze and brass artifacts indicates a shortage of tin resources, which might be the primary catalyst for a bronze-to-brass transition within the Jin State.

The translocation of broomcorn millet (Panicum miliaceum) is an enticing subject of archaeological investigation. While the species was rapidly dispersed across Eurasia during prehistory, its adoption appears to have been inconsistent, with evidence for its sudden and gradual adoption, as well as its rejection, observed within and between contemporary communities and cultures. The translocation of P. miliaceum may be better understood through the identification of its role and significance as a foodstuff among past populations. This study employs molecular investigation and bulk and compound-specific isotope analysis to study organic residues produced during culinary activities at Bruszczewo, Poland, during the Early Bronze Age (EBA) and Late Bronze Age / Early Iron Age (LBA/EIA). The analysis of ceramic-absorbed and charred ‘foodcrust’ residues enabled a comprehensive examination of vessel use-life and the production of individual meals. This study strongly suggests that P. miliaceum was not present at Bruszczewo during the EBA, conforming to its established translocation chronology, while highlighting its extensive use during the LBA/EIA. The cereal was incorporated into a variety of culinary activities, constituting both a minor and major ingredient of many meals, while being absent in others. Finally, the observation of apparently unrestricted use of P. miliaceum at Bruszczewo provided further insight into the role and significance of this cereal relative to contemporary LBA/EIA evidence for its use across the region. Supplementary Information The online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1007/s12520-024-02095-1.

The prehistoric settlement of Mikró Vouní lies on the southwestern coast of the island of Samothrace in the northeastern Aegean. The site’s stratigraphic sequence spans from the beginning of the Late Neolithic to the end of the Middle Bronze Age. Its importance has been emphasized due to the finding of Minoan pottery and clay mini-documents with Linear A inscriptions, indicative of the active links the settlement held with a Cretan palace (Knossos) in the 18th century BCE. The excavation yielded important finds related to Bronze Age metallurgy, namely furnaces, moulds, tuyères, crucibles and pieces of slag deriving from several contexts of different chronological periods, spanning from EBA II to MBA III. Notably the metallurgical finds of the MBA II-III periods derive from contexts with Minoan or Minoanising pottery and clay mini-documents suggesting a Minoan administration at the site. Recording of all relevant finds was followed by sampling of crucibles and slags that were subjected to laboratory analysis. The current article focuses on an investigation of metal production with the application of optical microscopy and SEM/EDS analysis aiming to reconstruct the prevalent processes that took place at the site during the Early and Middle Bronze Age. The results are significant as they provide crucial information on the technical intricacies of arsenical copper production in the early stages and the introduction of tin bronze technology most probably associated with the Minoan interaction on site. Evidence for cementation and co-smelting of Cu and Sn ores represent the earliest examples so far reported for the north Aegean. As the iconography of the Minoan clay documents’ seal impressions indicates, religious ideology of the Minoan palatial administration appears as an arena for encouraging metal manufacturing and trading in the north Aegean and beyond. In this context, Samothrace appears well incorporated into long-distance exchange networks for the procurement of tin to sustain bronze working practices, as the findings from Mikró Vouní suggest. Metallurgical technology seems to resonate in mythic accounts of the well-known smith deities, the Kabeiroi, who were essentially the same divinities as the Great Gods of Samothrace.

The bipolar technique has been widely used across a wide range of prehistoric contexts, from the Lower Pleistocene to the Metal Ages, and is a defining feature of the Uluzzian technocomplex, evident in the Early Upper Palaeolithic of Italy and Greece. The objective of this paper is to examine whether the use of the bipolar technique within the Uluzzian extends beyond its conventional definition as a mere technique. To address this question, we conducted goal-orientated experimental flaking, focusing on the industries found at key Uluzzian sites in Italy: Broion, La Fabbrica, and Castelcivita. A comprehensive review of archaeological and ethnographic evidence further supplemented our study on the application of the bipolar technique. While bipolar reduction typically involves less procedural control, resulting in a diverse range of blanks, our research shows that adhering to certain discernible principles can indeed exert control over specific morphological features of the resulting products. Factors such as blank selection and configuration, along with the management of volumes and edges, contribute to high productivity, the generation of elongated products, and miniaturization as distinctive characteristics. These findings collectively establish the bipolar reduction on an anvil in the Uluzzian as a systematic method of debitage.

In southern Africa, heat treatment of silcrete is documented by ~ 164 ka and is considered an important technological innovation, allowing knappers to improve the flaking properties of rocks for lithic blank production. Previous research has explored structural, mechanical, and geochemical changes in silcrete during heat treatment, but most studies have not explored the implications of those transformations for the blanks produced. Experiments that have examined the effects of heat treatment on blank production tend to rely on replicative flintknapping, where small changes in the way a blank is removed can create “noise.” In this study, we provide quantitative data to understand the effects of silcrete source and heating temperature on blank production using a flaking machine to isolate the effects of heat treatment on blank morphology. Our results show changes in absolute blank dimensions, and in the frequency of abrupt terminations as a result of heat treatment. However, the benefits of heat treatment may only occur within a limited temperature range and are heavily source dependent. This suggests that we should reconsider broad generalizations about the role of heat treatment in lithic technology and its supposed benefits and focus more on silcrete source and source-based effects on blank production.

The early medieval times in Cyprus are signified, conventionally, by the Arab invasions of the mid-seventh century (649/650CE). Past research viewed those events as the catalyst which led to a transformation from a prosperous province to a marginal territory balancing between two antagonising empires. Recently, studies have shifted their focus on reassessing this period’s scant -yet present- material culture. In pottery studies, despite the advances in typological and distribution aspects, few have explored technological issues of early medieval ceramic production through instrumental analysis. This study focuses on the compositional and technological characterisation of cooking vessels through ceramic petrography (TL-OM), found in relevant contexts in Cyprus, representing both wheel-thrown and handmade traditions. Sherds coming from five major early-medieval sites of the island (sites of Kophinou, Kalavasos-Kopetra, Akrotiri, Yeroskipou-Ayioi Pente and Dhiorios), outlined a picture of two parallel trends transversing across sites, i.e., an inter-regional shared sense of shape uniformity smoothening the local variances and a strong regionalism in terms of raw material procurement. Wheel-thrown cookware -found in every site and strongly represented by the Dhiorios workshop- showed the survival of Late Antique shapes well into the Early Middle Ages, in fabrics related mainly to the broader area of Dhiorios. In addition, handmade vessels of a "shared repertoire" showed a variety of local clays for their manufacture. When integrated into their archaeological context in Cyprus, the results support the idea of a ceramic koine persisting through the beginning of the Byzantine Early Middle Ages on an intra and inter-regional level.

Barbed projectile points, produced from osseous raw materials, are considered to be a major advancement in the hunting techniques of prehistoric communities. They appear in Eurasia in the Upper Palaeolithic period, and were rather common during the Magdalenian technocomplex and later, among the Mesolithic communities in northern parts of Europe. When it comes to the Adriatic area and the Balkan hinterlands, barbed projectiles were rather scarce and mainly from the Early Holocene period – relatively large assemblage comes from the site of Odmut in Montenegro, and few were found in the Iron Gates region. Recent excavations at the site of Vlakno, situated on the Dugi Otok island in Dalmatia, yielded two almost complete barbed points, from the layers dated into ca. 15,000 calBP, thus showing that these types of weapons were used in the area earlier than previously thought and had wider geographical range. Their techno-typological traits will be discussed in this paper, as well as their possible mode of use.

Local types of coinage testify to the emerging use of silver in the Balkan interior, possibly related to abundant ore deposits in the region. Here, we present Pb isotope data for silver coins minted by local tribes and settlements (anepigraphic coins attributed to the Derrones/Laeaei, Damastion, Pelagia, Kings of Paeonia) between the 5th and 3rd centuries BCE. For comparison, we analysed coinage of the potential Greek emporia Dyrrhachium and Apollonia for their main element and Pb-Ag isotope compositions. Statistical data evaluation demonstrates close material connections between coins from the Balkan interior and identify a predominantly local raw material provenance. The majority of Damastion’s issues defines a tight cluster fitting Strabo’s (VII.7.8) account that the settlement possessed nearby silver mines in the Balkan interior. Novobërdë/Novo Brdo (Kosovo) can be plausibly hypothesised among the available reference data to have been one of the main ore districts supplying the mint. Mixing is evident for coins from the Kings of Paeonia and coinage attributed to the Derrones/Laeaei. Virtually identical end-members suggest that Paeonian regal coinage recycled tribal issues with contribution of metal obtained from Damastion’s hypothesised mines. Contemporaneous coinage struck by Dyrrhachium as well as end-members calculated for Thasos and the Macedon kingdom (Albarede et al. in Bullion mixtures in silver coinage from ancient Greece and Egypt, J Archaeol Sci 162:105918, 2024a) signal metal sourced from the Balkans, presumably the Macedonian/Paeonian border area. Comparison of data from Greek city-states and coinage issued by Apollonia and Dyrrhachium for the Romans demonstrates a change in the type and origin of raw materials and bullion composition, indicating a shift in monetary customs and possibly metal production technology.

The Arhat statues of the Thousand Buddha Hall in Lingyan Temple, located in Shandong Province, is renowned as “the first masterpiece of sculpture in China” and possess significant artistic value. The integration of diverse analytical techniques to uncover the material composition, manufacturing process, state of preservation, and artistic significance of the statue holds great importance for the scientific protection and restoration of cultural artifacts in the future, while also serving as a foundation for virtual restoration. In this research, X-ray inspection, ultra-depth-of-field optical microscopy (OM), scanning electron microscopy coupled with energy dispersive X-ray analysis (SEM-EDS), and micro-Raman spectroscopy (µ-RS) were employed for the analysis and examination of the statue of “Niushi Bhikshu (牛呞比丘尊者)” in Lingyan Temple. The X-ray examination revealed valuable insights into the internal structure and preservation status of the statue. Discovery of copper coin inside the statue offers a new material for studying Buddha statue Zhuangzang (装藏). Analysis of the painted layers reveals that the statue has undergone at least eight instances of painting throughout its history. The mineral pigments used in the polychrome are red lead, cinnabar, hematite, chalk, cerusite, hydrocerussite, Emerald green (Cu(C2H3O2)2·3Cu(AsO2)2, synthetic), ultramarine (synthetic), carbon black and so on. It was found that Emerald green was used with ultramarine and chalk, and the former was completely transformed into Lavendulan (NaCaCu5(AsO4)4Cl·5H2O). This represents the first known instance of emerald green being mixed with ultramarine and chalk, resulting in a complete transformation into lavendulan. Indicating that the qualitative change of Emerald green is closely associated with its microenvironment. The differences in Raman spectra between cerusite (PbCO3) and hydrocerussite (2PbCO3·Pb(OH)2) of lead white pigment are pointed out. Silver foil layers and golden clay coating layers were found in the gilding painted layer, in which the silver foils had been corroded and transformed into silver sulfide. The use of silver foils and golden mineral pigment instead of gold foils to decorate the statue enriched the understanding of the gilding decoration technology of the ancient Chinese polychrome statue. This study enhances the scientific research content related to the arhat statues in Lingyan Temple. It brings new perspectives or new materials to research of Buddha statue Zhuangzang, corrosion of emerald green pigment, special application of lead white, and gilding decoration technology, etc. At the same time, it offers a scientific foundation for the protection and restoration of these statues. Additionally, analysis of painting materials provides essential information for the virtual restoration of the color texture of the statues.

The trajectory for the southward diffusion of cultural elements originated from north China, such as millet crops, painted pottery, and sarcophagus burial, along the eastern margin of the Tibetan Plateau (EMTP) during the Neolithic and Bronze Age, is a hot issue across multiple disciplines. Painted pottery and millet had spread into the southeast margin of the Tibetan Plateau during the early fifth millennium BP, while sarcophagus burials emerged in the same area before ~ 3000 BP. However, the timeline for the southward diffusion of sarcophagus burial remains unclear due to the absence of reliable dates of sarcophagus burials in the northeast Tibetan Plateau (NETP). To solve this problem, we investigated prehistoric sites in the Bailong River valley of NETP and sampled bones from a site and five sarcophagus burials for radiocarbon dating. Most dates span between ~ 4500–3500 BP, which are the earliest direct dates of sarcophagus burials distributed along the EMTP. In comparison to updated results of archaeological studies and radiocarbon dating, we argue that the southward diffusion of sarcophagus burials along the EMTP occurred between ~ 4500–3000 BP, much later than the southward dispersal of painted pottery. This provides a new perspective to understand multiple waves of southward culture diffusion along the EMTP before the dawn of the Imperial Age in China.

Biodistance analysis identifies groups that exhibit biological affinity based on phenotypic data. This study proposes and evaluates the performance of algorithms for biodistance analysis based on various squared Euclidean and generalized Mahalanobis distances by combining them with probabilistic hierarchical cluster analysis (HCA) and multidimensional scaling (MDS). Four archaeological datasets of human dental metrics and/or non-metric traits were used. To analyze the data, we integrated our previous work on biodistances and developed algorithms that calculate various types of squared Euclidean and generalized Mahalanobis distances, estimate various parameters, apply modified MDS and HCA methods to compute all possible cluster probabilities, and provide MDS confidence ellipses and dendrograms with cluster probabilities. All algorithms are implemented in R. From the data analysis, we found that all distances studied are simulated very satisfactorily by the Monte-Carlo method, resulting in the estimation of accurate cluster probabilities. Examining the probabilities of expected cluster formation, we found that these probabilities are higher when calculated using generalized Mahalanobis distances than the corresponding Euclidean distances. Therefore, the cluster probabilities supported that the generalized Mahalanobis distances are better than the corresponding Euclidean distances in cluster analysis. From a methodological point of view, clustering information concerning population affinities should not be based on a single dendrogram but instead be extracted from the list of the most frequent clusters obtained from all simulated dendrograms.

In the present work we carry out a study of all the Late Bronze Age swords recorded in the Balearic Islands. They represent a set of local practices and traditions alongside foreign ideas and archetypes. To carry out the study, we employ a strategy that joins technological and archaeometric analyses with approaches that consider isotopes and typologies. Of note among the data considered is the importance of metal coming from deposits in Linares, followed by Menorca and Mallorca, and finally, more marginally, Sardinia. A technological analysis of the manufacturing processes provides evidence, in a local context, of the use of the lost-wax casting technique, compound objects, and ternary bronzes, all technologies foreign to the Balearic Islands. Finally, we reflect on the local practices in which these objects were embroiled. All of this allows us to provide an in-depth examination of the interaction networks as well as the changes that took place in local metallurgical practices as the result of the circulation of ideas and knowledge.

Birch tar was the first substance made by humans that is otherwise not available in nature. The oldest artefacts date to ~ 200 thousand years ago in Europe but birch tar becomes more frequent around 45 thousand years ago and even more so from the Mesolithic onwards. Their study has important implication for our understanding of evolutionary processes such as cognitive capacity and cultural evolution. What remains unknown is the overall molecular composition of birch tar. Several approaches based on gas chromatography-mass spectrometry have shown the potential of studying solvent soluble molecules to understand the botanical origin of different tars, their manufacturing techniques and their post-depositional alteration mechanisms. However, birch tar’s soluble fraction cannot shed light on its mechanical properties. In this study, we conduct gas chromatography-mass spectrometry and spectroscopic analysis of seven bulk birch tar samples, including infrared band assignment and structural refinement of organic molecules in the insoluble fraction. We find that the overall proportion that cannot be analysed by gas chromatography accounts for 85–90% in birch tar. This phase consists of polymerised molecules with a structure analogous to asphaltenes but containing a significantly greater amount of oxygen-related functional groups. Our findings have implications for understanding the viscosity, adhesiveness and stiffness of birch tar and they call for caution in applying analytical techniques that only target soluble molecules in birch tar.

Insects play a crucial role in cadaveric decomposition, yet their contribution to taphonomic alterations on bones is often overlooked. This study investigates insect activity's impact on bone surface modifications under different environmental conditions. Five unfleshed pig heads were subjected to varied settings—buried and exposed—across coastal and inland contexts. Nine insect taxa were identified, including flies (Sarcophagidae, Calliphoridae [Chrysomia albiceps], Fanniidae, Muscidae), beetles (Dermestidae [Dermestes maculatus], Cleridae [Necrobia rufipes], Hydrophilidae [Cercyon cf. arenarius]), ants (Formicidae [Tetramorium depressum]), and termites (Kalotermitidae [Cryptotermes brevis]). Taphonomic changes observed on bone surfaces varied between buried and exposed specimens, with greater insect diversity and more pronounced modifications in exposed samples. Striations, linear marks, perforations, and bone destruction were linked to specific insect taxa, revealing novel osteophagic behavior in certain species. Termite activity, identified by faecal pellets, occasionally resulted in bone damage. Notably, beetle-induced alterations were absent in coastal environments, suggesting post-decomposition transport when these modifications appear on bone elements from coastal sites. This is the first experimental study in archaeoentomology, providing critical insights into insect-driven taphonomic processes in coastal and inland archaeological sites, with implications for forensic and archaeological interpretations of bone alterations.

Zhaili Kiln is considered one of the earliest kilns to produce northern celadon, but there is currently little comprehensive research on its celadon production. Thirty pieces of typical Zhaili celadon wares dating to the sixth and seventh centuries have been studied in this work. The chemical compositions and microstructures of the ceramic bodies and glazes of these wares have been determined to suggest the possible raw materials and relevant techniques used to make the Zhaili celadon wares. The scientific results indicate that the Zhaili celadon bodies were made using local coal-based clay with high Fe2O3 and TiO2 contents. Besides, additional quartz may be added to the body paste due to its high SiO2 content and the observable angular quartz particles, which might be ascribed to reducing the firing temperature of coal clay. Unlike typical Chinese glaze recipes, the Zhaili celadon glazes might be produced by three components, coal clay, vegetal ash, and an additional siliceous component, probably loess. This ternary glaze formula at least lasted to the Jin Dynasty in the Zibo kilns. The possible reason for adding loess is to improve the SiO2/Al2O3 in the glaze and effectively form an amorphous glass matrix. The Zhaili kiln potters appear to have developed a suitable celadon making formula to adapt to the available raw materials in the local area. The production of celadon bodies and glazes in the Zhaili kiln varies between its initial and mature stages.

The lava used to make saddle-querns recovered from the prehistoric megalithic temple complex of Tarxien (Malta), cannot have originated in the Maltese Archipelago because it consists entirely of sedimentary rocks. The National Museum of Archaeology (Malta) permitted the sampling of three damaged querns which were recognized among those reported from the site by the excavator, Themistocles Zammit in the early twentieth century. The volcanic samples were studied according to the igneous petrology methodology and belong to two different rock types and magmatic series, namely alkaline basalt (one quern) and calc-alkaline basaltic andesites (two querns). The petrographic classification of these millstones thus suggests a provenance from volcanoes which are represented by extrusives with a magmatic and plate tectonics geodynamic fingerprint of both ocean island basalts (OIB) and subduction zone-related volcanic rocks (SZVR). The provenance areas for the volcanic querns studied are the island of Linosa or the Hyblean Mountains (Sicily) for the alkaline basalt and the Aeolian Archipelago for the two calc-alkaline basaltic andesites. Accordingly, all the investigated grinding stones from Malta come from the neighbouring areas of the Central Mediterranean, thus confirming the existence of a strong exchange network between the Maltese Archipelago and the eastern Sicilian areas in the Late Neolithic (early to mid-3rd millennium BCE) and the Early Bronze Age (Tarxien Cemetery Phase ca. 2100 − 1500 BCE).

This study investigates lead provenance and circulation patterns in Han Dynasty (202BC-220AD) China through the analysis of lead glazed pottery. Four objects were studied using a combination of typological study, elemental chemistry and lead isotope ratio analysis. The results for each object were compared with databases of ‘lead mining districts’ (lead deposits) and ‘lead usage districts’ (lead-containing artifacts unearthed in different spatial and temporal ranges) to assess the lead sources used for each sample and offers a spatial-temporal range of the use of these lead resources. Three distinct groups of lead and their possible circulating spatial-temporal scales are identified across six samples in this study. A possible change in lead supply networks between the Western Han Dynasty (202BC-9AD) and the Eastern Han Dynasty (25AD-220AD) is proposed. This study also highlights the probable changes in the movement of lead resources from the Western Han Dynasty to the Tang Dynasty (618AD-690AD), suggesting improvements in long-distance transport capabilities, and the development of economic divisions and exchange connections in ancient Chinese society. Our findings contribute to a deeper understanding of the economic and political dynamics during the Han Dynasty and emphasize the significance of lead isotope analysis of glazed pottery in exploring resource movement.