Sokoine University of Agriculture

Background The medicinal mushroom Sanghuangporus is renowned in East Asia for its potent therapeutic properties, attributed in part to its bioactive sesquiterpenoids. However, despite their recognized medicinal potential, the biosynthetic pathways and specific enzymes responsible for sesquiterpenoid production in Sanghuangporus remain unexplored, limiting opportunities to optimize their medicinal applications. Results Sesquiterpenoids from four Sanghuangporus species were extracted through targeted isolation using mass spectrometry (MS)-based metabolomics, resulting in the discovery of six known abscisic acid-related compounds and one new compound, whose structure was determined through spectroscopic and computational analysis. We employed a natural product genome mining approach to identify a putative biosynthetic gene cluster (BGC) containing a sesquiterpene synthase gene, ancA, associated with the detected compounds. Biosynthetic pathways for these compounds were proposed based on an integrative approach combining BGC analysis and MS2 fragment-based dereplication. Further analyses revealed that the gene content and synteny of the ancA BGC are relatively well-conserved across Sanghuangporus species but less so outside the genus. Conclusions A sesquiterpene synthase gene, its associated BGC, and the biosynthetic pathway for a group of detected abscisic acid-related sesquiterpenoids in Sanghuangporus were predicted through genomic and metabolic data analyses. This study addresses a critical gap in understanding the genetic basis of sesquiterpenoid production in Sanghuangporus and offers insights for future research on engineering metabolic pathways to enhance sesquiterpenoid production for medicinal use.

Amanita (Agaricales, Basidiomycota) is a well-known and the largest genus of agaric mushrooms from the family Amani-taceae. Amanita is divided into 3 subgenera and 11 sections. The section Caesareae is characterized by species with an annulated stipe, margin striate pileus, and a bulbless stipe base covered with a saccate volva. Several species in sect. Caesar-eae are edible (e.g. A. caesarea and A. caesareoides), while some bear morphological similarities to poisonous species, A. subjunquillea from section Phalloideae. These species exhibit similar morphologies across broad geographic regions, even across continents. The primary objective of this study was to investigate the species diversity and taxonomic status of the A. sect. Caesareae in South Korea. Sixty-two Amanita specimens from South Korea were identified based on morphological features and phylogeny using five molecular markers (ITS + nrLSU + RPB2 + TEF1 + β-tubulin). The phylogenetic analysis identified 15 species belonging to sect. Caesareae. Five taxa are confirmed as new to science. A detailed description of the new species and their phylogenetic placement are reported in this study. This study unveils the species diversity of Amanita sect. Caesareae in South Korea and highlights the continent-and region-specific nature of species within this section. A deeper understanding of species diversity and detailed morphological characterization will aid in distinguishing between edible and toxic Amanita mushrooms. Additionally, the study offers supporting data for future ecological, systematic, and toxin studies of the genus Amanita.

Brucellosis is a neglected zoonotic disease in most developing countries, including South Sudan. Precise identification of Brucella species is crucial for addressing public health and epidemiological concerns associated with brucellosis. The study aimed to identify Brucella species using real-time polymerase chain reaction (qPCR) from seropositive samples that were acquired from an earlier investigation. A total of 143 genomic DNA samples were extracted from brucellosis Rose Bengal plate test (RBPT) seropositive samples from humans (n = 7), cattle (n = 103) and goats (n = 33). The samples were collected from Terekeka and Juba counties, Central Equatoria State (CES), South Sudan. The qPCR targeting the Brucella-specific IS711 insertion gene at the genus level was performed. Samples with a cycle threshold (Ct) of ≤ 35 were considered positive and subjected to further Brucella speciation assays. Out of 143 DNA samples tested for genus-specific Brucella, 15 (10.5%) were positive including 4 (2.8%) from humans, 10 (6.9%) from cattle, and 1 (0.7%) from goats. Brucella abortus was identified in 5 (33.3%) of the positive samples at the genus level. The overall individual species infection rates with B. abortus were 6.6% (1/15) in humans, 20% (3/15) in cattle, and 6.6% (1/15) in goats. There was no B. melitensis detected in this study. This study identified B.abortus in cattle, goats and humans in CES, South Sudan. The findings suggest that cattle are probably the primary reservoirs for transmission of B. abortus, with infections occurring in goats and humans primarily resulting from cattle spillover.

Introduction Salmonella, one of the most frequent foodborne bacteria, is linked to 155,000 annual mortality and 93.8 million foodborne illnesses. Rampant use of antibiotic agents to combat Salmonellosis in poultry has contributed to the emergence of resistance against commonly used antibiotics. Methodology A cross-section study was conducted between January and June 2023. Purposive sampling was used to select farms, poultry faecal droppings were collected to determine the occurrence of multidrug-resistant (MDR) Salmonella spp. Samples were examined for the presence of Salmonella by standard microbiological techniques. Conventional biochemical tests and molecular methods such as PCR and partial DNA sequencing were used for the identification of Salmonella isolates. Antimicrobial susceptibility testing was performed to identify Salmonella isolates resistant to seven commonly used classes of antibiotics. Results The overall Salmonella spp isolated from faecal droppings from the selected farms was 6.04% (n=48). Of the PCR-confirmed isolates, 64.3% (n=18) were resistant to more than two classes of antibiotics and hence considered MDR. The highest resistance was observed with ampicillin (92.9%), followed by tetracycline (69%), ciprofloxacin (42.9%), sulfonamide (42.9%), gentamicin (35.7%), and azithromycin (28.9%). All the isolates were susceptible to chloramphenicol (100%). Twenty-eight (28) isolates were sequenced and only sixteen (16) sequences met the criteria for phylogenetic analysis. All the sixteen (16) Sequences clustered together with Salmonella enterica sub spp. enterica with accession number EU348369 which was isolated from chickens, pigs, and foods. Conclusion The observed high level of antibiotic resistance found in this study could be attributed to the unwarranted use of antibiotics. To limit the use of antibiotics in poultry farming at the farm level, immediate action is needed including advocating for prudent use of antibiotics in poultry production systems by strengthening extension services to poultry farmers and use of farm biosecurity.

This study examined the trends in rice (Oryza sativa L.) production and yield stability in Tanzania, with a focus on harvested area, total production, and yield per unit land area. We utilized data from FAOSTAT (https://www.fao.org/faostat/en/#home), focusing on the "Production Domains (Crop and Livestock Products)" for the "United Republic of Tanzania." Filters were applied for "Area harvested," "Yield," and "Production Quantity" under "Items (Crops, Primary)" for the period 2000–2022. Other data and information were obtained from literature and government official reports. Mixed statistical analyses (Univariate and Multivariate) were performed. The univariate was performed to assess harvested area, total production, and grain yield through descriptive statistics, while multivariate analysis examined relationships among these variables and yield stability using Generalized Linear Models (GLMs) and Principal Component Analysis (PCA). The results revealed a significant increase in the area harvested, peaking at 481,000 hectares in 2020, compared to 250,000 hectares in 2000. Yield fluctuations were notable, with a significant decline in 2008 (− 729.29 kg ha⁻1) followed by a recovery in 2018 (791.28 kg ha⁻1). A strong positive correlation was confirmed between harvested area and production (0.00035791) and yield (0.0013233). PCA results demonstrated that the first three principal components accounted for 87% of the total variance. Statistical tests showed substantial yield differences between 2000 and 2010, reaching 720,690.1 kg ha⁻1, with yield stability between 2021 and 2022 noted, resulting in a minor difference of 18,802.6 kg ha⁻1. The findings reveal that harvested area significantly affects rice production, but yield variability remains a challenge. While expanding cultivated areas has increased output, yield stability is a concern. This emphasizes the need for targeted strategies to optimize cultivation and enhance food security amid changing agricultural conditions.

This study explores the factors influencing consumer willingness to pay (WTP) for novel, healthy, and locally produced food products in East Africa, focusing on sensory experiences and packaging design. Conducted in Tanzania, Uganda, and Kenya, the research includes two complementary studies: Study A examines sensory evaluations (taste, texture, aroma, color, and general acceptance) as predictors of WTP, while Study B assesses the impact of visual packaging features (e.g., typography, illustrations, and product windows) on consumer perceptions and WTP. Study A highlights that general acceptance (GA) is the strongest predictor of WTP, driven primarily by taste, texture, and aroma, while visual sensory cues play a secondary role. In contrast, Study B demonstrates that packaging design features, such as product visibility and ingredient-focused imagery, significantly influence WTP, with health messaging increasing perceived value but locality cues reducing it, likely due to cultural biases against packaged local products. The results reveal a critical difference: WTP is more stable and predictable in sensory evaluations but more volatile in response to packaging designs, driven by consumer expectations. These findings underscore the importance of aligning sensory and visual attributes to understand consumer expectations and enhance WTP for innovative food products in emerging markets.

Background Tuberculosis (TB) in cattle negatively affects the cattle economy in Africa, with zoonotic TB posing drug-resistance issues in humans. The burden of TB in cattle and zoonotic TB in humans in sub-Saharan Africa (SSA) is not well understood. This study aimed to determine the prevalence of both TB in cattle and zoonotic TB in humans in SSA through meta-analysis. Methods Research on TB prevalence was sourced from multiple databases. A random effects meta-analysis model estimated TB prevalence in SSA and its regions, while meta-regression identified risk factors. The analysis included 114 studies for cattle and 59 for humans. Results The estimated TB prevalence in cattle was 5.06% (95% CI: 3.76–6.78), with a higher burden in West Africa. The prevalence was greater on farms than at abattoirs. Among humans, M. bovis prevalence was 0.73% (95% CI: 0.53–1.01), increasing to 1.56% (95% CI: 1.04–2.33) in TB incident cases, especially in the West and East Africa. Higher prevalence was noted among livestock workers, and in drug-resistant cases. Significant factors influencing TB prevalence varied for cattle and humans, including country, diagnostic methods, and study populations. Conclusion Focusing interventions on farms and livestock workers could help reduce the disease burden.

Antimicrobial resistance (AMR) is a worldwide health emergency that requires creative solutions beyond the use of traditional antibiotics. Nanotechnology is a viable substitute that offers fresh methods to fight resilient microbial strains. Unfortunately, there is currently a lack of information available regarding the use of nanotechnology to lessen the AMR challenge worldwide. This review examined the present application of nanotechnology to combat AMR. Different nanomaterials, such as metallic, polymeric, and lipid-based nanoparticles, are highlighted, along with their mechanisms of action, which include rupturing microbial membranes and producing reactive oxygen species. The review also looks at how nanotechnology is used in medical device coatings, drug delivery systems, and improving the effectiveness of current antibiotics. Notwithstanding its potential, issues like environmental effects, regulatory barriers, and safety concerns need to be addressed. Future directions should focus on the need for international collaboration as well as the application of nanotechnology into various antimicrobial tactics like bacteriophage and antimicrobial peptides. This review highlights the significant role that nanotechnology can play in combating AMR.

Feed and foods, including spices are prone to contamination by aflatoxigenic moulds, which produce secondary metabolite called aflatoxins, posing risks to trade, animal and human health and food safety globally. This study assessed aflatoxin contamination of locally processed pilau and tea masala spices produced by micro and small-scale enterprises in Tanga and Dar es Salaam regions. A total of 60 spice samples (30 each of pilau and tea masala) were analysed for aflatoxins AFB1, AFB2, AFG1 and AFG2 using High Performance Liquid Chromatography (HPLC) with fluorescence detector. Results revealed aflatoxins in 50% of pilau masala and 23.3% of tea masala samples with aflatoxin B1 (AFB1) being the most prevalent. AFB1 contamination was found in 43.3% of pilau masala and 10% of tea masala samples, occasionally exceeding the East African Community (EAC) maximum limit of 5 μg/kg. The moisture content ranged from 8.41–14.22% in pilau masala and 8.07–13.98% in tea masala, with mean values of 11.04 ± 0.30% and 11.67 ± 0.22%, respectively. Notably, 73.3% of pilau masala and 86.7% of tea masala samples exceeded the regulatory moisture limit of 10% (EAS 919-2019/EAS 920-2019). Elevated moisture levels were attributed to improper drying methods and inadequate knowledge among small-scale processors fostering conditions favourable for fungal growth and aflatoxin production. A significant positive correlation ( ) between moisture content and AFB1 was observed, indicating that high moisture levels promote fungal proliferation and AFB1 production. The study highlights the critical role of moisture control during post-harvest handling and storage in mitigating aflatoxin contamination. Proper drying techniques, use of airtight packaging, sanitation of tools, and improved spice handling practices are recommended to enhance product safety and compliance with regulatory standards. These findings emphasize the need for targeted interventions to address moisture related fungal contamination in spices, ensuring food safety and economic viability for small-scale processors.

Simple Summary African Swine Fever Virus (ASFV) poses a severe threat to pig farming globally. This study investigates farming practices and ASFV genotype II distribution in the Iringa and Ruvuma Regions of Tanzania, focusing on biosecurity gaps and molecular characterization. The study attempted to establish the ASFV infection status and the standards of biosecurity status in a select group of holdings. Therefore, a total of 205 clinical specimens were collected from 120 farm holdings, resulting in the confirmation of 21 ASFV cases from 14 holdings, and the detection of porcine circovirus-2 (PCV-2) co-infection in some cases. These findings emphasize the need for targeted biosecurity interventions and surveillance to mitigate ASF outbreaks in endemic regions. Phylogenetic analysis showed genetic uniformity among isolates, underlining the persistent dominance and stability of genotype II in the region.

In this study, we discussed the significant threat posed by powdery mildew disease (PMD) to cashew plantations worldwide, causing yield losses and economic damages. While limited modeling studies have examined the transmission dynamics of PMD, this work comprehensively investigates its spread using a mathematical framework. We present a deterministic mathematical model to describe the transmission dynamics of PMD within cashew plant populations. The basic reproduction number($R_0$) was calculated using the next-generation matrix method, and it was used to examine the stability of equilbrium points. Additionally, we conducted a sensitivity analysis to determine which parameters most significantly affect $R_0$. The key findings from the analytical and numerical simulations suggest that increased contact rates between susceptible cashew plants and infected Oidium anacardii Noack fungi raise the transmission rate of PMD, negatively impacting cashew yield and quality. Furthermore, timely application of control measures, such as fungicide application and destroying infected plant debris, can mitigate disease spread, aiding in disease management and yield protection. This study, consequently, enhances the understanding of PMD transmission dynamics, offering valuable insights for developing targeted disease control strategies.

Interaction among humans, livestock, and wildlife plays an important role in zoonotic disease transmission. The emergence of Leptospira in humans, rodents, and cattle remains relatively understudied. A cross‐sectional study was conducted between February and May 2023 in Muheza to determine evidence of Leptospira infection and associated factors in rodents, cattle, and humans. A total of 479 serum samples from rodents (n = 201), humans (n = 198), and cattle (n = 80) were examined by microscopic agglutination test (MAT) to detect antibodies against 6 live Leptospira stock culture serovars, including Pomona, Hebdomadis, Canicola, Grippotyphosa, Sokoine, and Lora. Additionally, a questionnaire survey was conducted on 140 respondents to determine factors that are associated with Leptospira seropositivity. Descriptive statistics and Chi‐square test were used to analyze the data. The overall Leptospira seroprevalence in rodents, cattle, and humans was 6.0% (12/201; 95% CI: 3.12%–10.20%), 12.5% (10/80; 95% CI: 6.16%–21.79%), and 13.1% (26/198; 95% CI: 8.76%–18.65%), respectively, and the most predominant serovars were Grippotyphosa, Sokoine, and Hebdomadis. A significant difference in the seroprevalence was observed in occupation, whereby farmers were more likely to be infected with Leptospira than those in other occupations (χ2 = 9.19, df = 3, p = 0.027). This study showed co‐agglutination among rodents, cattle, and humans with serovars Hebdomadis, Sokoine, and Grippotyphosa. People aged 36–59 had the highest seropositivity, suggesting they are the most at‐risk group. This study shed light on pathogenic serovars circulating among humans, rodents, and cattle and factors associated with seropositivity. The findings appeal for multisectoral One Health approach for effective control of Leptospira infection and other zoonotic diseases.

Recently, overweight and obesity among adolescents have become a growing concern, necessitating a comprehensive understanding of both preventive and effective management strategies. The present study aimed to assess knowledge and practices on the prevention of overweight and obesity among secondary school adolescents in Morogoro Municipality. An institutional-based cross-sectional study was conducted from April to May 2023 among 253 randomly selected students studying in Form 1, Form 2, and 3 classes. Data were collected through face-to-face interviews using a semi-structured questionnaire. Statistical Package for Social Science (SPSS) Version 25 was used for descriptive statistics to describe the study variables and logistic regression to identify factors associated with knowledge and practices on prevention of overweight and obesity. Among 253 respondents, 129 (51.0%) were females. Approximately 30% (n = 75) of the students mentioned vegetables and fruits as healthy foods, while 20.6% (n = 57) of the students were not aware of unhealthy foods. Despite the small number of students knowing that fruits and vegetables are healthy, only 20.2% (n = 51) and 43.5% (n = 110) reported consuming them 7 days a week, respectively. Most of the participants (82.2%, n = 208) were aware of the causes of overweight and obesity, and increasing physical activity (51.8%, n = 131) was the most cited preventive measure. Being in a higher level of study, that is, Form 2 (AOR 9.33, 95% CI: 2.71–32.10) and Form 3 (AOR 5.02, 95% CI: 1.38–18.25) were significantly associated with increased knowledge and practices on prevention of overweight and obesity. Conclusively, knowledge and practices regarding the prevention of obesity and overweight among secondary school adolescents vary significantly. While some aspects showed good knowledge and practices, others were less understood and practiced. This suggests a need for implementing a comprehensive community-based health education program focusing on adolescents as a window of opportunity for current and future prevention of overweight, obesity, and associated comorbidities.

Agricultural lands on the southern slopes of Mount Kilimanjaro comprise diverse and complex, smallholder cropping systems. This study explores the variation in soil fertility across different altitudes and their influence on cropping systems to recommend appropriate soil management practices. The study site spanned three altitudinal zones: upland (1438–1698 m), midland (901–1337 m) and lowland (680–834 m). Soil samples from 50 plots along the 25-km transect were analysed for chemical properties. Complementary data were collected to understand the cropping systems through six transect walks: two for each land use. Results indicate that soil organic carbon (SOC) and total N are highest in the upland and decrease with altitude, while exchangeable bases (Ca, Mg, K and Na) increase as altitude decreases. Soil pH is acidic at higher altitudes and alkaline at lower altitudes. Available P decreases with altitude, whereas available S shows no significant relationship with elevation. Overall, soil fertility status was better in the order of upland > midland > lowland, indicating a decreasing suitability trend for supporting crop production. Elevation significantly influenced the distribution patterns of soil nutrient levels (p<0.05). Upland and midland zones employ farmyard manure application, crop residue retention and cultivation under shade to preserve soil moisture and enhance biomass accumulation. In contrast, the lowland relies heavily on inorganic fertilisers, with nutrient depletion evident due to biomass transfer to higher altitudes. Soil erosion is critical in all three zones, necessitating erosion control measures. Recommendations include soil nutrient amendments in the upland and midland by liming to increase soil pH and address P deficiency and in the lowland through reducing salinity, use of nitrogenous fertilisers, biomass retention and incorporating leguminous plants. Cultivation of crops adapted to the conditions along the three zones is also advocated. These findings aim to improve soil management and crop productivity, ensuring sustainable agricultural practices in the region.

Introduction The rapid digitalization of agriculture in East Africa has spurred the adoption of precision fertilization tools, which optimize nutrient application and enhance crop yields. However, the extent of digital technology adoption, its benefits, and the challenges smallholder farmers face in the region remain unclear. Methods A systematic review adhering to PRISMA guidelines assessed the adoption of digital technologies for precision fertilization in East Africa. A comprehensive search of English-language studies published between 2010 and 2024 resulted in fifteen studies that met the inclusion criteria. Results The review highlights digital solutions that assist smallholder farmers in sustainable resource management, including mobile applications, ICT tools, Variable Rate Application (VRA), and AI/ML technologies. Reported benefits include improved crop productivity, increased economic efficiency, and enhanced environmental sustainability. However, issues with data accuracy, limited access to technology, affordability constraints, and low digital literacy hinder widespread adoption. Discussion The findings emphasize the need for further research and the development of tailored strategies to enhance digital agricultural practices in East Africa. Addressing socioeconomic and infrastructure challenges is crucial to ensuring equitable access and maximizing the effectiveness of digital precision fertilization tools. This review provides valuable insights to support stakeholders in developing sustainable, data-driven agricultural frameworks to improve regional food security.

Pollination by insects accounts for over 70% of global food crop production. Among insect species, bees are some of the most efficient pollinators though their pollination efficiency varies between species. Amidst rising worries about declining pollinator populations due to human activities, understanding the diverse capabilities of pollinators is crucial for conservation. While stingless bees show promise as commercial pollinators, their capacities compared to Apis mellifera remain insufficiently understood. This study evaluated the pollination efficiency of Apis mellifera and Hypotrigona gribodoi on yield and fruit set in Capsicum annuum. The experimental design included three treatments: Apis mellifera, Hypotrigona gribodoi, and self-pollination with three replications for each treatment. Analysis of variance (ANOVA) was used to compare differences in fruit number, fruit transverse circumference, and fruit vertical circumference among Hypotrigona gribodoi, Apis mellifera, and self-pollination. The Kruskal-Wallis test was applied to compare fruit set rate, fruit weight, number of seeds, and dry seed weight. Post-hoc analyses involved Tukey’s HSD for normally distributed data and Dunn’s test for non-normally distributed data. The results show significant differences (p < 0.05) in fruit number, transverse circumference, vertical circumference, weight, and percentage fruit set rate per plant, with Hypotrigona gribodoi-pollinated Capsicum annuum performing better than Apis mellifera and self-pollination. However, there was no significant difference (p > 0.05) in the number of seeds per fruit and the weight of dry seeds per fruit among the treatments. Hypotrigona gribodoi appears to be a more efficient pollinator of Capsicum annuum L. Further research on differential pollination efficiency among species remains imperative.

Background: Climate-Smart Aquaculture (CSAq) practices present significant opportunity for the mitigation of climate-related challenges within the aquaculture sub-sector, particularly in the Lake Zone of Tanzania, where aquaculture and fisheries are central to household well-being. Aims: This study aimed to evaluate the impact of three CSAq practices—integrated farming, polyculture, and monoculture—on household income and food security. Methods: A cross-sectional study was conducted between November 2023 and February 2024, involving 384 aquaculture households across the Mara and Mwanza regions. Data were analyzed using descriptive and inferential statistical methods, including chi-square and t-tests, to determine the influence of CSAq practices on economic and food security outcomes. Results: The findings revealed that integrated farming significantly enhanced both household income and food security, with participating households achieving a "Very Satisfactory" Household Food Security Index (HFSI) score. In Mara, where integrated farming was more prevalent, households reported significantly higher yields (3303 ± 155 kg) compared to those in Mwanza (2454 ± 146 kg; t = 4.96, p < 0.001). However, Mwanza exhibited significantly higher prices per kilogram (6719 ± 103 TSH) than Mara (5799 ± 122 TSH; t = -5.29, p < 0.001) attributed to superior market access and infrastructure. Polyculture practices, more frequently adopted in Mwanza (35.7%) than in Mara (21.8%), yielded variable impacts on income and food security. Chi-square analysis (χ² = 9.269, p = 0.010) indicated significant regional disparities in CSAq adoption, with Mara exhibiting higher adoption rates of integrated farming (69.3%) compared to Mwanza (56.0%). Conclusions: This study confirmed that integrated aquaculture-agriculture systems significantly improve household income and food security, while monoculture increases vulnerability. Regional variations indicate higher yields in Mara, associated with the widespread adoption of integrated farming, whereas Mwanza benefited from enhanced market access and elevated fish prices. Strengthening financial access, training programs, and institutional support is crucial for enhancing CSAq adoption. Key recommendations include the expansion of extension services, the improvement of market infrastructure, and the fortification of cooperative support systems to ensure sustainable aquaculture. Keywords: Climate-Smart Aquaculture (CSAq), Income, Food Security, Household Well-being, Tanzania’s Lake Zone.

Background Adequate fruit and vegetable (F&V) intake is important for health, yet populations globally are failing to meet recommendations. Objective A scoping review to summarize available evidence of evaluations of interventions to increase F&V intake globally, focusing on target populations, intervention strategies, research methods, and summarizing their evaluated impacts. Methods We searched PubMed and Web of Science in February 2023 for intervention studies in which dietary intake of fruit and/or vegetables were documented. Eligible studies included all age groups, excluding those targeting populations with specific disease-related conditions, such as cancer patients/survivors. Only articles published in English since 2012 were included in the review. Results We identified 6338 articles, with 226 meeting inclusion criteria, comprising 223 unique studies and 284 intervention comparisons. Most comparisons occurred in high-income countries ( n = 192) compared to low- and middle-income countries ( n = 92). Randomized controlled trials (RCTs; 37.3%) and cluster RCTs (52.5%) were predominant. Interventions primarily targeted adults (31.7%), school-aged children (18.0%), children under-five (14.4%), and adolescents (13.7%), lasting an average of 24 weeks (range: 2 weeks to 20 years). Food-frequency questionnaires (59.2%) and 24-h recalls (26.8%) were the most used dietary assessment method. Health and nutrition education (75.9%) was the most common intervention, utilizing interpersonal communication, mass media, and information-communication technology, often in combinations. Positive impacts on fruit (43.9%), vegetable (40.2%), and combined F&V intake (53.0%) were observed in nearly half the intervention comparisons. Conclusions These findings highlight the predominance of health and nutrition education interventions, predominantly in high-income countries, showing mixed success in improving F&V intake, emphasizing the need for context-specific strategies and standardized methodologies to design sustainable, cost-effective interventions for better diet quality and health outcomes. Plain language title A literature review assessing what we know and do not know about efforts to improve fruit and vegetable intake across the world.

Quantitative surveys of wild animal abundance or activity, and assessments of the integrity of the complex natural ecosystems they live in, are typically quite laborious and meaningful analysis of the data obtained may require considerable time and expertise. This study describes the development and evaluation of a practical procedure for semi‐quantitative consensus‐based synthesis of subjective impressions accumulated by a small team of investigators who visited 32 different locations distributed in or around a community‐based Wildlife Management Area in southern Tanzania. The subjective natural ecosystem integrity index (SNEII) scores obtained represent a holistic indicator of all aspects of land use, wildlife and human activities, which correlated strongly with objective indicators of wild animal community or whole natural ecosystem integrity that were estimated directly from quantitative survey data by the same investigators at the same locations. Also, comparative regression analysis indicated that the SNEII was a far more sensitive to variations in observed human activities than any of the objective alternatives, correspondingly yielding far more detailed insights into ongoing conservation challenges. This simple procedure for summarizing the overall, multi‐faceted subjective impressions of individuals traversing extensive conservation areas may well be applicable through participatory approaches to routine programmatic monitoring by community‐based staff with minimal training, and may therefore be more practically useful to devolved conservation areas like WMAs than conventional objective statistical synthetic indices relying on laborious collection and expert analysis of quantitative survey data.