Nature Conservation Agency

Animals within social groups respond to costs and benefits of sociality by adjusting the proportion of time they spend in close proximity to other individuals in the group (cohesion). Variation in cohesion between individuals, in turn, shapes important group‐level processes such as subgroup formation and fission–fusion dynamics. Although critical to animal sociality, a comprehensive understanding of the factors influencing cohesion remains a gap in our knowledge of cooperative behavior in animals. We tracked 574 individuals from six species within the genus Canis in 15 countries on four continents with GPS telemetry to estimate the time that pairs of individuals within social groups spent in close proximity and test hypotheses regarding drivers of cohesion. Pairs of social canids (Canis spp.) varied widely in the proportion of time they spent together (5%–100%) during seasonal monitoring periods relative to both intrinsic characteristics and environmental conditions. The majority of our data came from three species of wolves (gray wolves, eastern wolves, and red wolves) and coyotes. For these species, cohesion within social groups was greatest between breeding pairs and varied seasonally as the nature of cooperative activities changed relative to annual life history patterns. Across species, wolves were more cohesive than coyotes. For wolves, pairs were less cohesive in larger groups, and when suitable, small prey was present reflecting the constraints of food resources and intragroup competition on social associations. Pair cohesion in wolves declined with increased anthropogenic modification of the landscape and greater climatic variability, underscoring challenges for conserving social top predators in a changing world. We show that pairwise cohesion in social groups varies strongly both within and across Canis species, as individuals respond to changing ecological context defined by resources, competition, and anthropogenic disturbance. Our work highlights that cohesion is a highly plastic component of animal sociality that holds significant promise for elucidating ecological and evolutionary mechanisms underlying cooperative behavior.

Laser-induced breakdown spectroscopy (LIBS) provides a rapid, cost-effective, and extra-sensitive analysis of geological samples to make preliminary conclusions about the presence of valuable elements up to the trace levels in the ore. We present the first results of a highly sensitive qualitative analysis of the core samples of geological ore from two boreholes in Latvia (Staicele 1, from a depth range of 794–802 m, and Garsene (Subate) 2A, from a depth range of 1102–1103 m) using LIBS. Our measurements using this technique confirmed the high iron content and indicated traces of rare and high in-demand metals (such as Ti, V, Co, Sm, etc.) in the sample from Staicele, renewing interest in studying boreholes across Latvia. The presented pilot studies demonstrated effectiveness and unique possibility in performing a very sensitive and time-saving qualitative analysis of the composition of samples of ores from the old but still valuable borehole cores by using the LIBS method. We compare these measurements with other methods of sample analysis.

In Latvia, four dormouse species have been recorded. In 2016 an annual monitoring of the Hazel Dormouse ( Muscardinus avellanarius ) and Forest Dormouse ( Dryomys nitedula) was commenced within the national biodiversity monitoring programme to obtain data that would allow assessmen of the conservation status of those species and their habitats. The nestbox method was used for the surveys, as it is equally suitable for collecting data on all four species of dormice. Since 2016, 133 temporary study plots with 5–15 nest-boxes each, were established all over the country to record species presence. Sevenadditional permanent study plots collected data on population dynamics, each consisting of at least 50 nestboxes placed within a grid system at 50 m intervals. No Garden Dormice ( Eliomys quercinus) were recorded, supporting the presumption that this species has vanished in Latvia. A new location for Edible Dormouse ( Glis glis) has been discovered. The Forest Dormouse is found exclusively in a small area near the Latvia-Belarus border, but Hazel Dormice found in Latvia are probably are part of a metapopulation located to the south. No overlapping of distribution areas of species was found. The previous assessment of dormouse species, according to outdated IUCN criteria, was done 20 years ago. Re-assessment according to current IUCN criteria, and using monitoring data, is now carried out within the recently commenced LIFE FOR SPECIES project (2021–2024). Preliminary assessments indicate that each dormouse species will be classified in different categories - rangingfrom Least Concern to Regionally Extinct.

The Latvian population of the Forest Dormouse is small and isolated, situated far from the main distribution range of this species. The population is located in the south-eastern region of Latvia, close to the Belarusian border. Sixty-three nest-boxes were located throughout this distribution area and captured forest dormouse individuals were sampled for genetic analysis. Animal age, sex, and coordinates from place of capture were recorded. DNA was extracted from 120 individuals using the QIAamp DNA Mini Kit (Qiagen, Germany). RAPD-PCR polymorphisms at 65 loci were used to examine the genetic diversity and differentiation of the Forest Dormouse population in Latvia. 89% of loci were polymorphic, average expected heterozygosity over all loci was 0.321, average polymorphism information content (PIC) was 0.246. The program ‘Structure’ was used to perform Bayesian assignment of individuals to a predefined number of clusters. The deltaK method identified that the most likely number of clusters within the Latvian Forest Dormouse population was three. Assignment of individuals to a particular cluster mostly corresponded with the location where the individual was captured. Analysis of molecular variance (AMOVA) indicated that there was significant genetic differentiation between the three clusters with pairwise Phipt (a modification of Fst) values ranging from 0.118 to 0.180.

Dianthus superbus is one of the most endangered species in Latvia and is on the verge of local extinction. Therefore, the aim of this study was to inventory previously identified populations of D. superbus in Latvia and to develop activities to conserve this species in accordance with the results obtained in situ. Expeditions on 18 previously documented locations, according to the data of Nature Conservation Agency, revealed only three existing D. superbus localities in Latvia with a significant number of specimens located in the Latgale region near Silenieki. In 2020, for the first time, two more new D. superbus localities were found in the vicinity of these three approved locations. As it is not possible to create micro-reserves in the existing localities which are mainly located either on roadsides or in a cemetery, additional activities are needed to preserve the D. superbus in Latvia. In vitro culture was initiated from shoot explants obtained in situ, from which, in turn, ex vitro plantings were done in the National Botanic Garden (NBG) and the Botanical Garden of the University of Latvia (BG UL). Their quality and compliance with plants in situ were analysed. Overall, it was concluded that the plants grown ex situ were qualitatively equivalent to those obtained in situ, as a very high percentage of seed viability and germination was found both for in situ and ex situ growing D. superbus. Based on the results obtained we could conclude that D. superbus is a species that is able to adapt to different soils with a wide range of nutrient levels, moisture conditions and pH, as long as there are three main preconditions—adequate lighting, low overgrowth of other plant species and non-destructive human activities.

Groundwater pollution by agrochemicals such as nitrogen fertilizers can cause complex biogeochemical transformations to take place in groundwater-dependent ecosystems. To explore the interaction between nitrogen load and groundwater-dependent, spring-fed ecosystems, a study was conducted in Latvia in an area of suspected high nitrate (NO 3 ⁻ ) vulnerability due to its geological settings. A map of NO 3 ⁻ vulnerability along the margins of the carbonate aquifer in Latvia is presented. The map is based on a conceptual model that was developed during an extensive case study involving hydrological, hydrochemical, and habitat investigation of springs discharging from a karst aquifer and spring-fed ecosystems. Areas that should be prime targets for restricting fertilizer application are highlighted on the map. Although the case study revealed increased nitrogen pollution (up to 51 mg L ⁻¹ , standard deviation of 9 mg L ⁻¹ , in the springs discharging from the karst aquifer), no clear evidence of adverse effects due to NO 3 ⁻ pollution on the groundwater-dependent ecosystems using biotic indicators was found, highlighting the resilience of spring-fed ecosystems against high nitrogen inputs. In the case study, downstream groundwater-dependent ecosystems retained 70% of the reactive nitrogen during the vegetation season, but only a small proportion during the cold season. Thus, NO 3 ⁻ pollution can be partly mitigated by restoring wetlands along valley slopes where natural groundwater discharge takes place. The conceptual model developed for groundwater NO 3 ⁻ vulnerability is applicable to other areas in the Baltic region and other places with similar climatic and geological conditions.

The succession of semi-natural xeric calcareous grassland plant communities toward deciduous forest communities is poorly studied in Latvia. There is insufficient knowledge on the natural transformation of dry calcareous grasslands of Festuco-Brometea into thermophilous quasi-climax oak forest communities of Quercetea pubescentis that are very rare in Latvia. In this paper, a geobotanical study is presented that included studies of soils, tree age, spatial pattern of trees, vegetation composition of different succession stages, and analysis of environmental factors. The study was conducted in the Abava Valley, West Latvia, an area that is unique with species-rich xeric calcareous Festuco-Brometea grasslands, thermophilous oak forests dominated by Quercus robur, and intermediate secondary succession stages with young to medium-aged Juniperus communis and Pinus sylvestris formations.

Harbour porpoise (Phocoena phocoena), the only resident cetacean species of the Baltic Sea is formed of two subpopulations populations, occurring in the western Baltic, Belt Seas and Kattegat and the Baltic Proper, respectively. Harbour porpoises throughout these areas are exposed to a large number of human activities causing direct and indirect effects on individuals, that might also harm this species on a population level. From Latvia, Poland, Germany and Denmark 385 out of 1769 collected dead harbour porpoises were suitable for extensive necropsy. The animals were collected between 1990 and 2015 and were either by-caught or found dead on the coastline. Following necropsies, histopathological, microbiological, virological and parasitological investigations were conducted. Females and males were equally distributed among the 385 animals. Most animals from the different countries were juveniles between 3 months and 3 years old (varying between 46.5 and 100% of 385 animals per country). The respiratory tract had the highest number of morphological lesions, including lungworms in 25 to 58% and pneumonia in 21 to 58% of the investigated animals. Of those with pneumonia 8 to 33% were moderate or severe. The alimentary, hearing, and haematopoietic systems had inflammatory lesions and parasitic infections with limited health impact. 45.5 to 100% of the animals from the different countries were known by-caught individuals, of which 20 to 100% varying between countries had netmarks. Inflammatory lesions, especially in the respiratory tract were found in higher numbers when compared to control populations in areas with less human activities such as arctic waters. The high number of morphological changes in the respiratory tract and of bycatches especially among immature animals before reaching sexual maturity is of serious concern, as well as the low number of adult animals among the material. Data on health status and the causes of death are valuable for management. A next step in this regard will combine data from health and genetic investigations in order to detect differences between the two populations of the Baltic.

Dynamic interactions between ground- and surface water are widely known, but the role of groundwater in terrestrial and aquatic ecosystems is often poorly understood and documented due to the spatiotemporal complexity. Many countries have not yet completed the assessment of groundwater dependent ecosystems (GDEs). GDEs are valuable ecosystems that depend on groundwater input and can not be considered and assessed separately. Changes in the quantity and chemical composition of groundwater recharge may result in significant and permanent damage on GDE flora and fauna. Aquifers are dynamic systems which are not subject to administrative boundaries and borders, therefore should be managed in close cooperation between neighbouring countries. According to the European Union’s Water Framework Directive 2000/60/EC, a groundwater body is considered to be in “poor status” if environmentally negative pressure on groundwater causes significant damage to related GDEs. The identification of GDEs in Estonia is currently underway. A theoretical approach on how to identify, assess, and monitor the groundwater dependent terrestrial ecosystems (GDTEs) has been developed. Similar climatic and hydrogeological conditions allow to adapt the methodology to Latvia and develop it jointly further. The first step in this joint methodology is to (i) find indicators and (ii) define criteria for (i) the evaluation of quantitative and qualitative effects of groundwater bodies on GDTEs and (ii) assessment of ecosystems. Subsequently, the quantitative and qualitative effects on GDTEs using assessment schemes must be identified. In this chapter, we are presenting a methodology for GDTE identification and assessment which could be used in similar situation in other countries.

In conservation biology, there is a general consensus that protected areas (PAs) are one of the most effective tools for biodiversity protection. Worldwide, the area of PAs is continually increasing. But is the effectiveness of biodiversity protection improving with it? Since many PAs only exist as “paper parks” (i.e. they exist on maps and in legislation but offer little actual protection), the answer is uncertain. Moreover, it has long been known that, not only an increase in the extent of PAs, but also the efficiency of their management is fundamentally important for effective nature conservation. Therefore, there is a wide-ranging discussion about the actual effectiveness of PAs and factors that influence it. In the course of the EU pre-accession phase, a comprehensive field mapping of natural habitats took place in the Czech Republic in years 2001−2004. The mapping results were used to designate Special Areas of Conservation (SACs) as part of the Natura 2000 network. In this study, the aim was to evaluate the effectiveness of this newly created system of SACs for protection of biodiversity represented by the mapped natural habitats. The NCEI index (Nature Conservation Effectiveness Index) was applied, calculated as the total area of a particular habitat type in all SACs in the Czech Republic divided by the total area of that same natural habitat in the entire Czech Republic. Habitat protection in the Czech Republic is focused primarily on the smallest types of rare habitats, many of which are classified as critically endangered. The Czech national system of SACs provides protection to a total of 4,491.68 km2 of natural habitats. Based on these results, it can be concluded that the overall effectiveness of the SAC system in the Czech Republic, which is specifically aimed at protecting natural habitats, is low (NCEI = 0.36). Nevertheless, the critically endangered habitats receive maximum protection (NCEI = 1).

Biodiversity loss was a central argument for redefining sustainable forest management in the 1990s, but threatened species remain poorly addressed in forestry governance. Management history of the Capercaillie (Tetrao urogallus) population in the Baltic States reveals a high potential of socially valued threatened species for developing the missing forestry–conservation interfaces. We review the history of the Baltic Capercaillie population since the 19th century, showing how its status transformed, both ecologically and socially, from a famous hunting target to the most widely protected forest species in the region. Compilation of recent national survey data confirms that at least 3450 lekking males currently survive in 961 leks; they are distributed between six large and about twenty small populations. During the 20th century, lek sizes decreased and local extirpations spread from South-Baltic mosaic lands to northern forests. As a social response, innovative management initiatives have repeatedly enabled periods of population stability and local recoveries. The most recent developments in Capercaillie conservation combine elements from the historically separated nature conservation, forestry and game-management approaches. The consistency of such social responses despite political upheavals suggests that iconic species can culturally stabilize long-term sustainable development.

This study of the spatial distribution and ecology of the flying squirrel during the turn of the 20th century provides a description of new methods and techniques for detecting and accounting flying squirrels in the forest zone of Eurasia. The flying squirrel population area covers the territory of 61 regions of Russia, including Kamchatsky Krai and Chukotka Autonomous District. The number of flying squirrels in Karelia especially to the east – in the Arkhangelsk region and Western Siberia – significantly exceeds that of Finland, but considerable spatial variability in the number is obvious through all the regions: there are areas where this animal is quite abundant, or inhabits all the territory rather evenly, and there are areas where it is completely absent in vast territories even with seemingly favourable conditions. The flying squirrel is quite difficult to study and the reasons of its absence in obviously favourable areas are still to be explained. Some reasons are: the specificity of favourable landscape, forest coverage pattern, trophic relationships with predators and genetic aspect. A number of hypotheses are supposed to be tested in the nearest future.

In the Baltic countries, Estonia, Latvia, and Lithuania, mires directly affected by peat extraction cover almost 90,000 ha. Of these, over 26,200 ha have been already extracted and abandoned. In this paper, we reviewed the state of extracted peatlands in the Baltics from the second half of the 20th century until recent years, being similar in all three countries. An overview of the reclamation and restoration means applied during the last decades and a critical assessment of the experiences are presented. Beside the dominant approach during and shortly after the Soviet period  abandonment of extracted peatlands without any reclamation measures, in most cases, if any, the areas were afforested, converted into berry plantations or waterbodies. The reclamation was more experimental than systematic, lacking proper assessment of outcome in relation to the initial purpose, cost and benefit evaluation, the assessment of impacts and side effects. Recently, several trials aimed at restoring the mire vegetation and ecosystem functions have been carried out in all three countries, demonstrating different levels of success, though the experiences are definitely useful for the future.

Forests are becoming increasingly dominant in the landscape of north-eastern Europe as a result of a decline in agriculture, land abandonment and the related trend of afforestation. This is also the case in Latvia, where former agricultural land is either artificially afforested or taken over by the natural process of secondary succession. A large spatial and temporal variety of succession and compositional diversity of tree species colonizing fields is observed in the central part of Latvia. Understanding of the possible scenarios in the development of plant communities after land abandonment is important for deciding on viable management solutions, e.g. restoration of semi-natural grasslands or forest regeneration. The aim of the research was to determine the factors affecting the course of secondary succession at its initial stage and the composition of tree species that are colonizing abandoned fields. Ten abandoned fields were surveyed, recording species composition and vegetation structure, determining soil properties and analysing correlations between these factors. The research results help to explain the mechanisms of how soil properties affect the course of succession. On fertile soils a dense herbaceous layer developed, which in abandoned fields resulted in accumulation of a thick cover of litter. Such conditions hinder establishment of typical pioneer species, e.g. grey alder Alnus incana, aspen Populus tremula and birch Betula pendula, whereas Norway spruce Picea abies is able to compete with grass species and thus can more easily establish in abandoned fields, creating favourable conditions for invasion by other tree species.

In Latvia, during the last 15 years (2000–2015), the area of common ash Fraxinus excelsior forest stands has decreased by 40.6%. The dieback was predominantly caused by the fungal pathogen Hymenoscyphus fraxineus. Mostly young stands (up to 40 years old) were affected, accounting for 77.3% of the area of dieback. In this paper, we analysed the dynamics of young ash stand area within nature regions in Latvia to attempt to determine patterns of spread and the major migration routes of H. fraxineus. As suggested by the available data, the invasion of the fungal pathogen began in the southern part of Latvia, and then gradually dispersed across the country. The largest decline of young ash stands, during the period 2000–2010, occurred in lowlands. According to our estimate, the average rate of dispersal in Latvia was 40 km per year. At the scale of Latvia, the dispersal routes of fungal pathogen H. fraxineus largely coincide with the major migration corridors of biota and are related to macro-relief forms and their configuration.

We analysed the population size, population dynamics and reproduction success of the lesser spotted eagle in Latvia from 1988 to 2014. While the overall population did not show a statistically significant trend during any of the periods analysed (long, medium and short term), the populations in the individual study areas changed differently: of five research plots, populations were stable in two, increased in one, and decreased in two research plots. Using the existing research plots as samples of breeding numbers in areas of different breeding density classes based on forest management units, the total breeding population in Latvia was estimated. The overall number of breeding pairs in 2012-2014 was between 3700-4000. During the period 1988-2014, 65.62% of all pairs recorded as present on their home range, made a breeding attempt and laid eggs. The reproductive success ratio was 0.49 young per occupied territory with an adult pair of birds and 0.74 young per breeding pair which laid eggs. Overall, during the 21 -year research period there was a stable long-term trend in reproductive success (young per pair present on home range). Rarely, indeed only in 1 .89% of all cases did two young fledge. The total number of young (young per 100 km2) shows stable long-, medium- and short-term trends with an average value of 5.1 young per 100 km2.

We analysed the population size, population dynamics and reproduction success of the lesser spotted eagle in Latvia from 1 988 to 201 4. While the overall population did not show a statistically significant trend during any of the periods analysed (long, medium and short term), the populations in the individual study areas changed differently: of five research plots, populations were stable in two, increased in one, and decreased in two research plots. Using the existing research plots as samples of breeding numbers in areas of different breeding density classes based on forest management units, the total breeding population in Latvia was estimated. The overall number of breeding pairs in 201 2–201 4 was between 3700–4000. During the period 1 988–201 4, 65.62% of all pairs recorded as present on their home range, made a breeding attempt and laid eggs. The reproductive success ratio was 0.49 young per occupied territory with an adult pair of birds and 0.74 young per breeding pair which laid eggs. Overall, during the 21 -year research period there was a stable long-term trend in reproductive success (young per pair present on home range). Rarely, indeed only in 1 .89% of all cases did two young fledge. The total number of young (young per 1 00 km2) shows stable long-, medium- and short-term trends with an average value of 5.1 young per 1 00 km2.

The Common Dormouse (Muscardinus avellanarius) is a rare nocturnal species which is endangered in many European countries and difficult to detect without any prior information. As effective conservation is only possible when habitat requirements and current distributional range is known, this study focused on applying a standardized survey on a large spatial scale (Federal state of Hesse, Central Germany). Study sites were selected based on a state-wide habitat suitability model, suggesting favorable forests. Secondly, study site selection was supplemented by information of forest inventory data and site specific characteristics. 11 study sites were finally chosen to relate habitat configuration with dormouse absence and presence. 50 nest-tubes were placed in each site in a constant grid (120x120 m). The tubes were installed in February/March and checked monthly till August. Presence of common dormouse could only be detected in two field sites. By comparison of all surveyed forests shrub diversity, shrub density, ground coverage (herbs) and a certain percentage of coniferous trees had a positive influence on the dormouse habitat suitability, whereas a dense forest canopy had a negative effect. This study demonstrated that the habitat requirements of the hazel dormouse are special and related to specific habitat configuration, but it could occur also in habitats, which are less convenient as one site was strongly isolated. This illustrates that there are still a lot of research requirements for better understanding of distribution and habitat requirements of hazel dormouse. But the results of field survey are highlighting the significance of the species rich forests for common dormouse. Conserving dormouse habitats as species rich areas will also affect biodiversity and other species groups positively.

The subfamily Steganinae (Diptera, Drosophilidae) includes flies which display zoophilic feeding behaviour in the larval and/or adult stages, some of which act as vectors of Spirurida eyeworms, which infect both carnivores and humans. To date, the taxonomy and phylogeny of the subfamily Steganinae has been studied only superficially and many aspects of their systematics remain unresolved. Thus, the present study aimed to provide a molecular dataset to facilitate the identification and phylogenetic analysis of Steganinae species based on partial ( approximately 700 basepairs) mitochondrial cytochrome c oxidase subunit 1 (cox1) sequences. A total of 134 flies belonging to 13 species and eight genera of Steganinae were subjected to molecular and phylogenetic analyses. The mean nucleotide variation within the Steganinae subfamily was 8.1%, with a variation within genera for which more than one species was examined ranging from 1.6% (in Phortica spp.) to 21.8% (in Amiota spp.). Interspecific pairwise divergence ranged from 1.6% (Phortica variegata vs. Phortica semivirgo) to 24.8% (Cacoxenus indagator vs. Amiota alboguttata) and intraspecific variation ranged from 0% to 1%. Seventy of the 233 amino acids were variable, including 26 parsimony informative sites and 44 singleton sites, with some highly conserved residues identified within the genera Stegana and Amiota. Parsimony and maximum likelihood-based phylogenetic analyses provided strong support for the genus Phortica, phylogenetically distinct from the genus Amiota. Gitona distigma was placed in an unresolved position adjacent to the outgroup taxa, Drosophila yakuba and Drosophila melanogaster. The molecular data reported here represent the first molecular dataset based on cox1 of Steganinae flies and provide a base for further investigations into the evolutionary relationships among this little-studied subfamily.