National Institute of Fundamental Studies

Environmental pollution by primary and secondary microplastics is currently recognized as a major threat to planetary health. Transferring among organisms through food webs, they accumulate in humans and other organisms resulting in detrimental effects across the biosphere. Bacteria and fungi are known to degrade petroleum hydrocarbons. Heterogeneous communities of microbial biofilms benefit from an extended genetic repertoire and consequent metabolic and survival capacity. Our previous work demonstrated high efficiency degradation of hexadecane and crude oil by naturally occurring fungal-bacterial biofilms. These studies provide a platform for investigating the use of biofilms for combating microplastic pollution in terrestrial environments. Microorganisms were isolated from a municipal landfill in Sri Lanka. Fungal–bacterial communities that appeared during screening formed a biofilm during static culture in hexadecane and crude oil at 1% as sole carbon source. Biofilm formation was confirmed by scanning electron microscopy. Degradation of alkanes in cultures was quantitatively estimated using GC-MS. In silico investigation of putative Aspergillus flavus alkane monooxygenases was carried out using the NCBI protein database and computational tools such as PSI-BLAST, SWISS MODEL and Autodock Vina. A biofilm-forming consortium comprising Bacillus cereus and A. flavus demonstrated highly efficient synergistic degradation of the alkanes in hexadecane and crude oil in liquid culture (~99% in 7 days). Several alkane monooxygenases were identified in A. flavus as distal homologs of bacterial long chain alkane monooxygenases LadA and AlmA and the short to medium alkane monooxygenase Cyp52. Our results suggest that heterogeneous microbial biofilms are promising candidates for the application of ‘green solutions’ to combating terrestrial microplastic pollution. Future directions for consideration are improvement of the bioremediation potential of (polluted) soils through inclusion of plastic degraders in the soil microbiota. Development of stable bioformulations of biofilm forming microbes is the next step. Exploitation of the identified extracellular fungal alkane monooxygenases as biocatalysts in bioremediation formulations needs to be additionally considered.

Terminalia catappa Linn., also referred to as tropical almond or Indian almond, can play a significant role in improving food and nutritional security. The objective of this research was to assess the antioxidant, antihyperglycemic, and antiobesity potentials of the defatted residues from seed kernels of purple and yellow cultivars. The defatted residues obtained using a micro–screw-press oil extractor were subjected to sequential extraction using n-hexane, dichloromethane (DCM), and methanol (MeOH) as solvents. The crude extracts of both cultivars were subjected to the evaluation of total phenolic content (TPC), total flavonoid content (TFC), and antioxidant activities, namely, DPPH, ABTS⁺, and ferric reducing antioxidant power (FRAP). They were also subjected to enzyme inhibitory activities against α-amylase and lipase. Among the extracts, the MeOH extract of the yellow cultivar showed the highest TPC, superior antioxidant activities (DPPH and ABTS⁺), and strongest enzyme inhibitory activities. In contrast, the purple cultivar exhibited the highest FRAP activity. Gallic acid was the major phenolic constituent occurring in high concentrations in the defatted residues. These findings enlighten the potential uses of defatted residues of the T. catappa seed kernels, particularly those from the yellow cultivar as an ingredient for nutraceutical and functional food applications.

Banana tree (Musa spp.) has a false stem called a pseudostem which, is an edible soft-stem. A study was executed to compare the nutritional the highest TPC (20.06±1.97 GAE/g of crude extract) and the highest FRAP value (1.12±0.01 mM FeSO4/g of crude extract). EtOAc extract of AM had the highest TFC (17.54±2.25 CE/g of crude extract) and the highest DPPH (0.18±0.02 mM trolox/g of crude extract) and the highest ABTS (0.29±0.00 mM trolox/g of crude extract) radical scavenging activities. Among all extracts, MeOH of SU exhibited the strongest α-amylase inhibitory potential. Based on the findings, banana soft-stems of the local varieties could be utilized as a potential source for development of nutritionally rich and bioactive products.

CuO was synthesized by employing the facile chemical precipitation technique to vary the concentrations of Cu(NO3)2 in a range from 0.001 to 0.1 M. This was carried out in order to find the concentration of Cu(NO3)2 that results in optimal electrochemical performance in CuO as an anode electrode material for lithium-ion batteries. Among the investigated concentrations, the 0.03 M Cu(NO3)2 showed the best electrochemical performance. Of the synthesized materials, the scanning electron microscopic (SEM) analysis revealed the existence of a sponge-like morphology. X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS), X-ray diffraction (XRD), synchrotron X-ray diffraction (SXRD) and Raman spectrum confirmed the formation of a required CuO phase. The electron density distribution on the crystalline structure of the synthesized CuO indicates the existence of the highest distribution of electrons around Cu atoms, with enhanced productivity of the conversion mechanism during the cycling process. Further, this study shows that the electronic interfacial properties of Cu/CuO could be improved by optimizing the amount of acetylene black used for the electrode fabrication, with 20 wt% being the optimum value. The electrodes fabricated with the synthesized sponge-like microstructured CuO as the active material exhibited a high initial specific discharge capacity of 3371.9 mA h g⁻¹ and resulted in a specific discharge capacity of 442.9 mA h g⁻¹ (Coulombic efficiency of 97.4%) after 50 cycles, at a rate of 0.2 C. Moreover, the specific discharge capacity reported at the rate of 1.0 C was 217.6 mA h g⁻¹ with a significantly high Coulombic efficiency of about 98.0% after 50 cycles. Altogether, this study reveals the high potentiality of using sponge-like microstructured CuO as a high-performance anode electrode material for LIBs.

Gyrinops walla Garten., which is an endemic and endangered species of Sri Lanka, produces the world’s most expensive agarwood used in perfume industry. The high demand for agarwood has resulted in indiscriminate felling of trees, thus threatening the survival of the species. The present study aimed to develop an efficient in vitro rapid multiplication technique to conserve the existing trees from extinction, by ensuring the sustainable supply of planting materials for commercial cultivations and to investigate the possibility of producing fragrance compounds by in vitro plantlets without felling trees. Efficient micropropagation protocol was developed from axillary buds and shoot tip explants. Murashige and Skoog (MS) medium supplemented with 1.0 mg/L BAP was the best for the establishment of both shoot tips (80.0%) and axillary buds (86.0%). Regenerated buds were further multiplied (10.6 ± 0.93 shoot buds/regenerated shoot) and elongated (4.0 ± 0.26 cm) by transferring to MS medium supplemented with 1.0 mg/L BAP, 0.1 mg/L IBA and 40 g/L sucrose. Highest in vitro rooting percentage (66.7%) was recorded in ½ MS medium supplemented with 1.0 mg/L IAA and 40 g/L sucrose. However, none of the shoots rooted on MS media could be acclimatized. Significantly higher percentage of rooted shoots (93.3%) were produced on sand medium without auxin treatment compared to shoots cultured on MS medium supplemented with 1.0 mg/L IAA (66%) and successfully acclimatized with 83.6% survival rate in a medium consisted of sand, topsoil, and compost (1:1:1 ratio). TLC fingerprints of ethyl acetate extracts of in vitro grown plantlets and agarwood produced similar spots at the retention factors (Rf) of 0.60, 0.66, and 0.87 under 15% methanol: 85% chloroform solvent system. Chemicals present in in vitro plantlets were identified and compared with the agarwood of naturally grown G. walla by GC-MS. Both natural agarwood and in vitro grown shoot extracts contained 4-Hydroxypyridine 1-oxide (23.2%), 2-tetradecene (16.3%), 1-hexadecene (0.3%), E-15-heptadecenal (19.8%), 18-norabietane (0.6%) and eicosane (0.4%). Present study successfully developed a protocol for rapid multiplication of G. walla and indicates the possibility of using of in vitro plantlets to produce agarwood resinous compounds.

Global consumption of ginger has been growing in recent years resulting in high volumes of ginger root, rhizome, and leaf waste. Valorization of ginger waste is of great importance for a sustainable environment. In this research, ginger leaf waste was considered a valuable source for the extraction of phytotoxic chemicals. Ginger leaf waste from two varieties (Chinese and Sidhdha) was used for extraction using different organic solvents. The extracts were tested for phytotoxicity against elongation of root and shoot of Lactuca sativa seeds, bioassay-guided fractionation as well as spectroscopic and chromatographic techniques. All of the tested phytochemical groups were qualitatively identified in the methanolic extracts of both varieties. It was found that the level of inhibition was concentration-dependent, but the effect of variety on the extraction yield and level of phytotoxicity was nonsignificant. The methanolic extract showed significantly higher elongation inhibitions than the other solvent extracts. Accordingly, methanol was found to be the most effective solvent for extracting phytotoxic chemicals. Two potent phytotoxic compounds, named as R/ZO/1 and R/ZO/2, with 100% elongation inhibition, were recovered from the bioassay-guided fractionation. These compounds were identified as polar organic compounds and modified terpenoids with oxidized and decomposed fatty acid derivatives. The results of this study revealed the phytotoxic potential of methanolic extracts from ginger leaves. Graphical Abstract

The single-stage floating catalyst chemical vapor deposition (SS-FCCVD) method using the ferrocene route (e.g., ferrocene: catalyst and camphor: carbon source) offers significant but largely unexplored versatility for the production of carbon nanotubes (CNTs). Our study used the SS-FCCVD method to grow vertically aligned carbon nanotubes (VACNTs) on an alumina ceramic reactor surface at 850 °C under a nitrogen atmosphere. The experimental setup included a camphor/ferrocene ratio of 20:1 and a specific temperature gradient of 21 °C/cm. To minimize the catalyst agglomeration, we positioned the chemical sources at a distance of 15 cm from the inlet of the CVD reactor. Alumina ceramic surfaces proved highly effective for VACNT production, showing minimal agglomeration of iron particles, facilitating the formation of reactive sites essential for VACNT growth. The VACNTs grew readily on alumina ceramic surfaces, forming bundled, forest-like structures with segment lengths up to 1.2 mm and diameters around 60 nm. When compared to conventional substrates, the surface area of the reaction zone substrate increases by up to 705%, resulting in a significant boost in VACNT yield. A detailed evaluation of characterization results confirmed the growth mechanism and behavior of Fe particles such that carbon-encapsulated particles are attached to the inner and outer surfaces of the CNTs. These VACNT surfaces exhibited superhydrophobic properties, similar to the lotus leaf effect. The synthesized iron-dispersed CNTs exhibit exceptional efficiency in Chromium (VI) removal, with an impressive adsorption capacity of 0.206 mmol/m², positioning them as a promising solution for effective water treatment. This scalable SS-FCCVD method using the ferrocene route achieved the longest VACNTs reported to date. Supplementary Information The online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1186/s13065-025-01460-y.

The complex interaction between Aspergillus and Bacillus has been gaining attention with the evolution of their co-culture applications. Information reported on this interaction from different points of view including both synergistic and antagonistic mechanisms necessitates a review for better understanding. This review focuses on the interaction, biofilm formation, and the diverse biotechnological applications of Aspergillus and Bacillus, giving special attention to Aspergillus niger and Bacillus subtilis. The review demonstrates that co-cultivation of Aspergillus and Bacillus exhibits significant transcriptional changes, impacting metabolism and secondary metabolite production in both organisms. Signaling from living fungal hyphae, EPS production, TasA fibrils, and regulators like Spo0A are essential in forming biofilm communities. Nutrient availability and pH levels, species type, and mutations in EPS-producing genes may also influence whether Bacillus will act antagonistically or synergistically with Aspergillus. This dual-nature complex interaction activates silent genes synthesizing novel compounds mainly with antifungal and medicinal properties, showcasing its potential for diverse applications in various fields such as agriculture and crop protection, bioremediation, environmental biotechnology, food science and fermentation, industrial biotechnology, and medical biotechnology and health. The use of Aspergillus and Bacillus species has evolved from simple monoculture applications to more sophisticated co-cultures and has been trending toward their synergy and metabolic optimization.

Cyanotoxins are secondary metabolites produced by specific cyanobacterial species, able to grow and bloom in all aquatic and terrestrial biotas. The rationale for cyanotoxin production is still a mystery. There are many records of the adverse impacts of cyanotoxins, harming the organisms, animals, plants, and humans. However, with the continuous global research on these complex biological toxins, scientists realize their potency in industry, which benefits humans. The pharmaceutical industry is always looking for novel drugs from natural sources as most current medications cause adverse side effects, and most drugs/antibiotics have become ineffective because of the resistant nature of the infective microbes. Hence, cyanotoxins are an excellent source to be targeted. This chapter begins with an introduction to cyanobacteria, followed by a description of the diverse cyanobacterial toxins and their chemical structures. The next section will be on their bioactivity and genomics. The following section discusses the potential biomedical applications of various cyanotoxins, such as microcystins, oscillatoxins, anatoxins, and kalkitoxins, including those currently being tested and as future targets for different diseases. The following section discusses the utility of cyanotoxins in other industrial applications, including the production of algaecides, herbicides, and insecticides. The final section will include the conclusions and prospects as these cyanotoxins still need to be fully explored.

Tea is a widely consumed beverage worldwide. Many countries have a daily practice of consuming black tea with milk. There has been an increase in the popularity of adding tea to dairy products. This review summarizes the effects of adding milk to tea on biological activities, the relationship between the polyphenols of tea and milk, and the possible applications of tea polyphenols in the dairy industry. Tea with milk has different health benefits than tea without milk, as it has been proven that proteins and polyphenols can have a strong interaction, which can decrease the availability of tea polyphenols. Milk proteins have the ability to transport and absorb catechins from tea through the digestive system. Consumers highly desire the maximum uptake of antioxidants from tea and proteins in milk without negatively impacting tea flavor. The relationships between milk protein and tea polyphenols could be favorably used in the dairy industry.

Tea, from Camellia sinensis, is second only to water in global consumption. Tea germplasm in Sri Lanka consists of over 600 tea cultivars, and currently, 70 of them are recommended for commercial tea cultivation. However, the biological activities of Sri Lankan tea cultivars have not been documented. The present study investigated the in vitro enzyme inhibitory activities, viz., lipase, α-amylase, xanthine oxidase, α-glucosidase, and acetylcholinesterase, as well as antioxidant activity in black tea and tea leaves harvested from 15 different tea cultivars during the major seasons in Sri Lanka. The remarkable α-glucosidase, xanthine oxidase, and acetylcholinesterase inhibitory activities in black tea and tea leaves of tea cultivars were observed, with the IC50 of black tea ranging from 5.77 to 104.10 ppm, 0.55 to 36.75 ppm, and 28.37 to 184.06 ppm, respectively. Additionally, some tea cultivars have exhibited moderate α-amylase and lipase inhibitory activities. The radical scavenging activities of DPPH (1,1-diphenyl-2-picrylhydrazyl) and nitric oxide on black tea and tea leaves were exhibited with the IC50 of black tea ranging from 14.03–67.23 ppm and 76.22 to 251.35 ppm, respectively.

Dye-sensitized solar cells (DSSCS) were fabricated using different photoanode compositions of P25 TiO2 and hierarchically structured TiO2 microspheres and optimized their performance. DSSCs fabricated with 10% TiO2 microspheres in the composite photoanode exhibited the highest efficiency of 7.17%, while the devices with pristine P25 TiO2 photoanode showed an efficiency of 6.34% under the same illumination conditions of 100 mW cm⁻². Device performance was further optimized by using the plasmonic effect of Ag nanoparticles (AgNPs) with different particle sizes. SEM imaging revealed that the average diameter of the TiO2 microspheres was about 700 nm and consisted of aggregates of smaller TiO2 nanoparticles of diameters 5–15 nm. This unique morphology appears to enhance the light absorption by scattering effect as well as by increasing the specific surface area of the TiO2 photoanode for improved dye adsorption. The average particle size of the Ag nanoparticles confirmed by the Transmittance Electron Microscopy (TEM) measurements was found to be 20 nm (red colour) and 80 nm (blue colour). Optimized DSSCs made with 10 wt% of AgNPs (in TiO2) with red colour and blue colour showed efficiencies of 7.88% and 8.15% respectively under the same illumination conditions. An impressive ~ 29% increase in the overall device efficiency due to the combined effect of hierarchically TiO2 microspheres as well as the plasmonic Ag NPs of blue colour (cluster size 80 nm) in the photoanodes, whereas the overall efficiency enhancement with red-coloured AgNPs of size ~ 20 nm was ~ 24%. Graphical Abstract

Sri Lanka has high background radiation due to naturally occurring radionuclides like U-238, Th-232, and K-40 containing minerals. This study investigates the radiological characteristics of soil samples from the Matale District in central Sri Lanka, focusing on thorium (Th) and its potential mobility/bioavailability. Spectrometric data indicate that Th contributes most significantly to the elevated background radiation levels in this area. Thorium, present at approximately 0.2 wt.% in the bulk soil, was analyzed across various mineral phases, including oxides, silicates, and phosphates, using multiple extraction and characterization techniques. Light rare earth elements (REEs) were also examined due to their natural association with Th-bearing minerals. This study provides, for the first time, relevant information on Th minerals in central Sri Lankan soil, addressing a critical research gap in radiological assessments of inland soils in the country. Findings provide insights into radiation exposure risks and the environmental behavior of radionuclides, serving as an important starting point for future studies on radioactive risk assessment in central Sri Lanka. The results contribute to the understanding of soil properties and emphasize the importance of further comprehensive studies to fully assess health risks and develop potential environmental safety measures.

Polyphenols are a wide group of naturally occurring compounds found in plants and have the potential to safeguard living cells. The objective was to evaluate whether the inclusion of a polyphenol-rich sugarcane extract (PRSE) in drinking water could improve egg production and the quality of commercial layers. A total of 120 Shaver Brown hens, aged 43 weeks, were randomly allocated to 12 litter-floor pens in two open-sided poultry houses. The pens were divided into two treatment groups: one receiving 0% (control) and the other 0.05% PRSE in drinking water throughout the study duration. The treatments were prepared by adding PRSE manually into the drinking water daily, and water was given ad libitum. The birds were given commercial layer feed throughout the study. The number of eggs produced, abnormal eggs, and mortality were recorded daily. Egg weight, yolk colour, yolk height, albumen height, Haugh units, and antioxidant properties, were measured at weeks 45, 47 and 49. Supplementing PRSE in the drinking water did not impact hen-day egg production, hen-housed egg production, egg weight, egg mass, or feed conversion ratio. However, there was a trend toward significance in egg weight at week 45. The results indicated that PRSE supplementation led to a significant reduction in yolk colour during week 45 (P = 0.001), although no differences were observed in subsequent weeks. Yolk height, thick albumen height, and haugh units were unaffected by the treatment, while thin albumen height showed a trend towards reduction in the PRSE group at weeks 47 and 49 (P = 0.05). The DPPH assay revealed a significant increase in antioxidant capacity in the PRSE group at week 45 (P = 0.02). The 0.05% PRSE supplementation in drinking water initially enhanced antioxidant capacity but later adversely affected yolk color and thin albumen height.

The use of activated coconut shell charcoal (ACSC) was explored as a cost-effective and viable alternative to platinum (Pt) counter electrodes (CE) in CdS quantum dot–sensitized solar cells (QDSSCs). The photovoltaic performances of QDSSCs with newly fabricated ACSC CEs by spraying method and Pt CEs were evaluated using current density–voltage measurements under 100 mWcm⁻² light illumination. While the QDSSC with a Pt CE showed an efficiency of 1.26%, the QDSSC with an ACSC CE, with an optimal thickness of 25 μm, corresponding to a spray time of 60 s, showed an efficiency of 2.93%, demonstrating a more than two-fold increase in the efficiency. The physicochemical parameters of ACSC CEs were analyzed using FTIR, Raman, X-ray diffraction, cyclic voltammetry (CV), and Tafel characterization. CV, Tafel, and electrochemical impedance (EIS) analysis confirmed the superior electrocatalytic activity of the ACSC CE compared to the Pt CE for QDSSCs. The efficiency enhancement can be attributed to the increased photocurrent density due to the superior electrocatalytic activity of ACSC, which promotes efficient polysulfide reduction at the electrolyte/counter electrode interface. The porous nature of ACSC provides an increased specific surface area, facilitating redox reactions and improving the interaction between the electrolyte and the counter electrode. Additionally, the enhanced charge transfer capabilities of the ACSC-based counter electrode contribute to efficient electron transport and reduced recombination losses. These properties collectively optimize the cell’s performance by ensuring effective energy conversion. Consequently, ACSC is emerging as a promising novel material for counter electrodes in QDSSCs. Graphical Abstract

The evolution of a species can be understood in the context of two major concepts—the cryptic species concept and the phenotypic noise concept. The former represents morphologically indistinguishable but genetically distinct evolutionary lineages, while the latter represents the phenotypic variations of an isogenic population. Although the concept of cryptic species currently represents a general topic, its effect on other aspects of biology, such as biodiversity, ecology, evolutionary biology, and taxonomy, is still unclear. In particular, cryptic species cause complications and prevent the development of a clear taxonomy. The phenotypic noise concept or phenotypic plasticity generally refers to the various expressions of phenotypes in different environments. Hence, the cryptic species concept refers to genetic variations, while the phenotypic noises concept is about non-genetic variations. Although both concepts are opposites, they each contribute significantly to the evolutionary process of an organism. Despite the extensive research studies and publications discussing those two concepts in separate accounts, a concise account that combines and compares both concepts are generally lacking. Nevertheless, these are essential to understand the evolutionary process clearly. This review addresses the available literature on this topic, intending to provide a general and overall discussion on both the cryptic species concept and the phenotypic noise concept and their effect on evolution, ecology, biodiversity, and taxonomy with a special focus on fungal systematics. hence, several fungal case studies representing the two concepts are presented, compared, and discussed for a better understanding.

Objective Salicornia brachiata, an euhalophyte thriving in saline environments, can be processed into a dried powder (termed bio-salt) from its tender aerial parts. This study aimed to evaluate how three distinct drying methods; freeze-drying (FD), microwave-vacuum drying (MVD) as low temperature drying methods, and heat pump oven drying (HPOD) as a high temperature drying method, affect nutritional composition and bioactivities of S. brachiata. Ultimately, this research aims to identify the most suitable drying approach that retains bioactive and nutritional properties to preserve the health benefits of bio-salt. Methods The aerial parts of S. brachiata were washed, air-dried overnight, and then subjected to various drying methods. The proximate composition, colour measurements, mineral composition, and microbial quality of the dried powders were evaluated. The lipid extracts were analyzed using GC-MS and the total phenolic content and antioxidant activity of the resulting powders were assessed. Results Among the methods, FD best preserved the plant's color and yielded the highest levels of carbohydrates (42.64%), crude fat (0.88%), and dietary fibers (29.72%). Methanolic extracts of FD powders exhibited the highest phenolic content (43.68 ± 0.04 mg GAE/g DW) and superior antioxidant activity, with IC50 values of 8.72 ± 0.50 µg/mL for the DPPH assay and 19.49 ± 0.76 µg/mL for the ABTS assay, outperforming both MVD and HPOD. The FD extracts contained a higher proportion of unsaturated fatty acids compared to saturated fatty acids. In vitro antibacterial assays revealed that the FD extract at 100 mg/mL demonstrated the strongest inhibition against test bacteria. In an anti-inflammatory assay, FD was identified as the most effective drying method, yielding the lowest IC50 value of 314.78 ± 1.55 µg/mL. Conclusion These results suggest that freeze-drying is the most suitable drying method for preserving the bioactive properties and health benefits of bio-salt derived from the aerial parts of S. brachiata.

Achieving specific framework structures and morphologies in zeolite synthesis is crucial for broad applications. This study addresses the limited understanding of surfactant effects on crystal imperfections and phase purity in LTA zeolite synthesis, particularly under microwave-assisted conditions. We hypothesized that anionic, cationic, and non-ionic surfactants would significantly affect phase purity, morphology, crystallite size, and imperfections in LTA zeolites synthesized at varying microwave temperatures. Synthesized materials were characterized using powder X-ray diffraction, scanning electron microscopy (SEM), Raman spectroscopy, and Fourier transform infrared (FTIR) spectroscopy. Findings revealed that within the 100–150 °C microwave temperature range, all surfactants primarily yielded the LTA-type zeolite structure. However, a metastable phase was observed in materials synthesized at 130 °C with Sodium Dodecyl Sulfate (SDS), as indicated by reduced crystallinity and an additional Raman peak at 471 cm⁻¹. This suggests that while the LTA framework remained predominant, symmetry disturbances at this temperature impacted TO₄ stretching vibrations, possibly leading to a partial deviation from phase purity. Surfactants significantly influenced phase purity, morphology, crystallite size, and crystal imperfections, with optimal phase purity achieved at lower temperatures (100–110 °C) for anionic and non-ionic surfactants and at higher temperatures (130–150 °C) for cationic surfactants. Crystallite sizes varied in a complex, temperature-dependent manner, suggesting further investigation into crystallization mechanisms. An inverse correlation between microstrain and crystallite size was observed across samples, except at 130 °C, likely due to added stress and supplementary crystal phases. This study establishes foundational knowledge for selecting surfactants to modify pore structures in hierarchical LTA zeolites and offers insights for designing LTA zeolites with tailored properties, addressing knowledge gaps, and advancing zeolite synthesis techniques. Graphical abstract