Flemish Institute for Technological Research

Nanoplastic pollution is poorly known, in particular because research is actually mainly done using synthetic polymeric nanospheres that are not representative of environmental nanoplastics, which are very diverse in their composition, size, and shape. Here we review environmentally relevant nanoplastics with focus on their production, characterization, quantification, stability, aggregation, and toxicity. Production of environmentally relevant nanoplastics can be done by mechanical and physicochemical methods. Toxicological studies focus on internalization and toxicity on human cell lines, and bioaccumulation and systemic effects on model organisms.

Antimony is a critical raw material in Europe wherein for 43% of its market share it is applied in the form of antimony trioxide as a fire retardant in plastics. Currently, antimony recycling from waste plastics does not take place and has been scarcely studied. In this work, a process was developed to extract antimony from a soft PVC material and recover it as Sb4Cl2O5. Antimony was extracted by means of an ethanolic hydrochloric acid solution, prepared by diluting fuming HCl with ethanol to achieve the desired concentration. The addition of an organic solvent, such as ethanol, is known to enhance the chloride ion activity and promote metal chloride complex formation. This study confirms that the use of aqueous ethanol as a solvent increased the solvation of antimony at moderate temperature (i.e. 80 °C) as opposed to aqueous HCl solutions. The optimised leaching process showed high antimony extraction yields (94%) in the presence of an aqueous ethanol solution containing 4 M HCl at 80 °C for 4 h. Furthermore, the addition of the organic solvent ethanol to the reaction mixture caused organic additives to be co-extracted from the PVC (71% di-n-octyl phenyl phosphate, 51% di-iso-nonylphthalate, 76% 2-ethylhexyl diphenyl phosphate, 30% 9-octadecanamide and 15% butylated hydroxytoluene). The pregnant leaching solution was subsequently distilled to recover ethanol and washed with n-hexane to recover the extracted organic additives. Finally, water addition to the obtained solution led to the precipitation of 95% of antimony from the solution as Sb4Cl2O5 with a high purity (≥99.8%). The residual PVC was not degraded and could be suitable for recycling.

Background The detection of a local per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFAS) pollution hotspot in Zwijndrecht (Belgium) necessitated immediate action to address health concerns of the local community. Several human biomonitoring (HBM) studies were initiated, gathering cross-sectional exposure data from more than 10,000 participants. The linkage of these HBM data with primary care health registries might be a useful new tool in environmental health analysis. Aim We assessed the feasibility of linking exposure data from HBM programs to health outcomes from the Intego registry, which collects data from general practitioners’ electronic health records. This feasibility study uses exposure data from one of the completed PFAS HBM studies, which included 796 individuals. We describe the separate datasets, the process of integrating the HBM data into Intego, the analysis plan and the advantages and challenges of using this method. Results We established the integration of HBM data into the Intego primary care morbidity database, adhering to stringent privacy regulations and quality standards to ensure result integrity. Because of the modest sample size used in this feasibility study, no conclusions about the impact of PFAS on health endpoints can be drawn. However, with PFAS data from more than 10,000 residents available soon, more robust studies will be possible with this new method. Interpretation We introduce a novel approach for assessing the impact of environmental health hazards within primary care settings. The methods outlined here not only pave the way for larger-scale projects but also offer a promising avenue for long-term environmental health monitoring.

Lactic acid (LA) is an important biobased platform chemical, with potential applications in synthetising a wide range of chemical products or serving as feedstock for various bioprocesses. Industrial LA production via pure culture fermentation is characterized by high operational costs and utilizes food-grade sugars, thereby reducing the feasibility of LA applications. In this context, our research focussed on valorising the largest dairy side stream, cheese whey permeate, through the use of mixed microbial communities. We evaluated the effect of different operational parameters (temperature, pH and hydraulic retention time) in non-axenic fermentations on productivity, yield, concentration, optical purity, and community. Our findings revealed that operating at mildly thermophilic conditions (45 • C) resulted in highly selective LA production, and significantly augmented the LA yield, and productivity, compared to higher temperatures (50-55 • C). In addition, operating at circumneutral pH conditions (6.0-6.5) led to significantly increased the LA fermentation performance compared to the conventional acid pH conditions (≤5.5). This led to an unprecedented LA productivity of 27.4 g/L/h with a LA yield of 70.0% which is 2.5 times higher compared to previous reported maximum. Additionally, varying pH levels influenced the optical purity of LA: we achieved an optical L-LA purity of 98.3% at pH 6.0-6.5, and an optical D-LA purity of 91.3% at a pH of 5.5. A short hydraulic retention time of less than 12 h was crucial for selective LA production. This process also yielded a microbial biomass composed of 90.3-98.6% Lactobacillus delbrueckii, which could be potentially valorised as probiotic or protein ingredient in food or feed products. Our work shows that by careful selection of operational conditions, the overall performance can be significantly increased compared to the state-of-the-art. These results highlight the potential of non-sterile LA fermentation and show that careful selection of simple reactor operation parameters can maximize process performance. A preliminary assessment suggests that valorising EU cheese whey permeate could increase LA and poly-LA production by 40 and 125 times, respectively. This could also lead to the production of 4,000 kton protein-rich biomass, potentially reducing CO 2 emissions linked to EU food and feed production by 4.87% or 2.77% respectively.

Conventional fixed-bed reactors with conductive internals have shown excellent heat management in the Fischer–Tropsch synthesis, enabling much higher liquid productivity by avoiding thermal runaway.

This review by Working Group 1 of the RILEM TC 309-MCP discusses recent advances in the beneficial carbonation treatment of recycled concrete aggregates (RCA). The impact of carbonation on RCA properties as well as the microstructure and performance of concrete and other construction materials made thereof is critically reviewed. The increasing focus on environmentally friendly building practices has led to a greater interest in the CO2 uptake associated with carbonation processing. Furthermore, emphasis is placed on the importance of adopting tailored strategies to optimise the carbonation process based on the quality and type of RCA. Evidence in the literature highlights the beneficiation potential of carbonation processing in improving RCA properties and performance, which translates in variable degrees of enhancement of the performance of concrete or other applications made thereof. The review concludes that, to date, significant techno-economic challenges remain to be addressed to improve the competitiveness of the technology, notably in terms of upscaling and refining life cycle assessment data.

Separation of high-activity ²¹³Bi from ²²⁵Ac for targeted alpha therapy is challenging due to the instability of existing sorbents. Surface-modified carbon materials have shown promise for use in inverse ²²⁵Ac/²¹³Bi generators. However, previously reported materials with irregular shapes may limit their applications in column separations. In contrast, spherical particles are expected to be more suitable for column chromatography compared to irregular powders as they can ensure uniform flow patterns, lower pressure drop, and effective packing. To address this limitation, a method was developed for the synthesis of spherical carbon beads via the carbonization of cellulose beads. Subsequently, surface modification on the spherical carbon beads was performed via sulfonation or oxidation of the carbon beads. Batch sorption experiments were conducted to assess their selective sorption toward Bi³⁺ over La³⁺ (as a surrogate of Ac³⁺) by varying the concentrations of HNO3 and NaNO3. It was found that the selective sorption of Bi³⁺ onto spherical surface-modified carbon beads could be achieved by adjusting the concentrations of HNO3 and NaNO3. Furthermore, the sorption capacity of Bi³⁺ decreased as the concentration of HCl increased due to the formation of bichloride complexes and the H⁺ competition. This implies that Bi³⁺ can be effectively eluted from the spherical surface-modified carbon beads when using HCl as the eluate. Consequently, spherical surface-modified carbon beads show potential as alternative adsorbents for inverse ²²⁵Ac/²¹³Bi generators.

Tidal marshes are often restored on compact agricultural soil that limits tidally induced groundwater dynamics and soil aeration after restoration. We hypothesized that impaired soil aeration affects biogeochemical cycling and leads to altered porewater nutrient concentrations in restored tidal marshes. We studied soil hydraulic properties, groundwater dynamics and porewater nutrient concentrations (nitrogen, phosphorus and dissolved silica) over the course of one year in a natural and a restored freshwater tidal marsh in the Scheldt estuary, Belgium. From measured groundwater levels, we calculated the soil saturation index (the proportion of time the soil is saturated at a certain depth). The aerated zone generally extends over a deeper soil profile in the natural marsh compared to the restored marsh, where the former agricultural subsoil has a higher compaction rate and lower hydraulic conductivity. The soil saturation index was negatively correlated with nitrate (ρ = −0.21, p < 0.001) and positively correlated with ammonium (ρ = 0.32, p < 0.001). Concentrations of phosphate (ρ = 0.43, p < 0.001) and dissolved iron (ρ = 0.44, p < 0.001) were positively correlated to the soil saturation index, suggesting retention of phosphate on iron oxides in well aerated zones, which are more abundant in the natural marsh. The depth profile of soil hydraulic properties and soil aeration is very site specific, even within the same marsh, suggesting the need for a pre-restoration assessment of soil hydraulic properties to determine where and which design measures are required to optimize nutrient cycling in newly restored tidal marshes.

The use of N,N-dialkylamides as alternatives for tri-n-butyl phosphate (TBP) as extractants in the reprocessing of spent nuclear fuel has been investigated since the 1960s. N,N-di-2-ethylhexyl isobutyramide (D2EHiBA) and N,N-di-2-ethylhexyl n-butyramide (D2EHBA) can selectively extract hexavalent and tetravalent actinides from nitric acid spent nuclear fuel solutions. Annular centrifugal contactors (ACCS) have been designed specifically for counter-current multi-stage solvent extraction in the nuclear sector. Their main advantages are a high stage efficiency, the ability to work at short residence times (seconds), and a small liquid hold-up. In the present study, a new D2EHiBA-based separation of hexavalent uranium from tetravalent plutonium was investigated using ACCs, where for safety and practical reasons the use of hydrazine or other reductant/complexant is avoided altogether. The extraction behavior of technetium-99 m, ruthenium-103, and americium-241 was also monitored under those process conditions. It was demonstrated that uranium(VI) can be quantitatively extracted and purified from plutonium(IV) using the D2EHiBA extractant. A U(VI)/Pu(IV) decontamination factor of more than 6000 was obtained. The excellent performance of the modified lab-scale BXP012 annular centrifugal contactors was demonstrated, and these contactors have proven to be a valuable tool in the upscaling of solvent extraction processes at the Belgian Nuclear Research Center (SCK CEN).

Sustainability is an imperative requirement in this era, with electrocatalytic power into fuels technologies emerging as a significant route toward sustainable chemistry. One of the focus areas within the chemical industry is capture of carbon dioxide (CO2) and its electrochemical reduction (eCO2RR) into economically viable commodities through the utilization of renewable sources. Despite some specific eCO2RR technologies being poised for market introduction, the development of a comprehensive technology for eCO2RR remains a challenge. While certain technologies targeting specific eCO2RR products are on the verge of deployment, substantial efforts are still necessary to transition and establish presence in the market over conventional technologies. This review highlights recent technological advancements, fundamental studies, and the persisting challenges from an industrial perspective. We take a deep dive into the research methodologies, strategies, challenges, and advancements in the development of applications for eCO2RR. Specifically, three eCO2RR products – CO, HCOOH, and C2H4 – as promising candidates for implementation are elaborated based on techno‐economic considerations. Additionally, the review discusses the industrial blueprint for these products, aiming to streamline their path toward commercialization. The intent is to present the status of eCO2RR, offering insights into its potential transformation from a mere laboratory curiosity to a feasible technology for industrial chemical synthesis.

This chapter reviews the pros and cons of Power-to-Liquid (PtL) fuels and fuels produced from biomass (biofuels). Possible integrated production and deployment pathways for these fuels are described as this will improve the potential for these fuels. An updated comparison of the economics of biofuels, PtL fuels and combinations of them as well as an overview of important environmental issues is presented. Finally, some industry actors provide their views on the possibilities for PtL fuels versus biofuels in various sectors. Overall, it can be concluded that the combination of biofuels and PtL fuels could—at least temporarily—be a ‘dream team’, providing a transitional trade-off between costs, land use, and electricity use.

Salinity gradient power (SGP) by reverse electrodialysis is a promising method for converting SGP into electricity. Instead of the conventional approach of using seawater and freshwater, an alternative method involves using highly concentrated salt solutions (brines) alongside seawater or brackish water. Key factors influencing SGP via reverse electrodialysis (SGP-RE) include the properties of ion exchange membranes, particularly their thickness. This paper outlines a practical experimental set-up that uses both a cation membrane (CM) and an anion membrane (AM). The system is configured with three compartments: two outer compartments filled with highly concentrated brine (HIGH) and a central compartment containing a lower concentration salt solution (LOW), akin to seawater. The compartments are separated by a CM on one side and an AM on the other. The ion transport rate from the HIGH compartments to the central LOW compartment allows for determining the overall ion transport coefficient for thin membranes. Measurements of ion flux and electrochemical voltage under dynamic equilibrium conditions also enable the estimation of the SGP-RE power density (W/m2). By controlling the temperature of the HIGH and LOW solutions, this experiment further investigates the significant impact of temperature on ion transport characteristics.

This study investigated the concentration profiles and geographical variability of contaminants in house dust across Europe. A collaborative trial (CT) was organized by the NORMAN network using pooled dust and advanced chromatographic and mass spectrometric techniques combined with suspect screening and non-target screening (NTS). Over 1200 anthropogenic compounds were tentatively identified. Additionally, seventy-five individual samples were subjected to target analysis and NTS. The median concentrations of most contaminants varied <3-fold across Europe, and the contaminant profile of European dust was similar to that of North American dust, which was investigated in a previous CT. This similarity may be attributed to the use of similar consumer articles and building materials throughout the developed world. Multivariate data analysis revealed geographical trends in contaminant distribution, with north-south gradients across Europe. Geographical trends were more frequently found for compounds with rapid release (pharmaceuticals, personal care products, fragrances, pesticides, biocides) and smoke-related compounds. The concentrations of chlorinated paraffins, polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs), perfluorinated alkyl substances and stimulants generally increased from north to south, whereas the biocides levels decreased from north to south. Despite widespread presence of in-use contaminants in dusts, some of the highest risks come from compounds that have been restricted for decades or more. These include di(2-ethylhexyl) phthalate (DEHP), polychlorinated biphenyl (PCB) 118 and polybrominated diphenyl ethers 47, 99, and 153. DEHP remains the most abundant contaminant in European house dust, while the other compounds are classified as persistent organic pollutants (POPs). Moreover, there is a striking lack of reliable toxicity data, particularly for emerging compounds. For instance, although acceptable daily intakes (ADIs) were examined for 202 compounds, only 46 had consensus-based ADI values. The results highlight the need for proactive measures to prevent hazardous chemicals from entering the market and for careful selection of substitute chemicals, when such are needed, to avoid regrettable substitutions.

The rapid evolution of battery technology has sparked an urgent need for advanced monitoring and diagnostic capabilities. This comprehensive review explores the emerging concept of Lab-on-Cell (LoC), a paradigm shift in battery management that integrates sophisticated sensing technologies directly into electrochemical cells. Through meticulous analysis, the study examines cutting-edge sensor technologies, including resistive and thermoelectric sensors, piezoelectric devices, electrochemical impedance spectroscopy, and optical fiber sensors. It delves into their principles, applications, and limitations within the context of battery diagnostics. Uniquely, this review intertwines technological assessment with geopolitical and economic context, charting the evolution of LoC technologies against a backdrop of global events and policy shifts. It sheds light on the complex drivers of innovation in this field, drawing connections between research trends, industrial needs, and regulatory changes. The study introduces a novel dual-reference system, separating general and LoC-specific sources to cater to a diverse readership. The review culminates in a forward-looking analysis of LoC technologies’ potential impact on battery management systems, cell design, and manufacturing processes. By weaving together technological advancements, market forces, and future projections, this in-depth examination provides a holistic view of the LoC landscape. It stands as a vital resource for researchers, industry professionals, and policymakers navigating the intricate future of energy storage technologies.

This review comprehensively explores various homogeneous and heterogeneous catalytic systems for the hydrogenolysis of oxygenated polymeric wastes (OXPs), presenting an adaptable solution to plastic pollution and generating valuable feedstock.

Proteomics stands as the crucial link between genomics and human diseases. Quantitative proteomics provides detailed insights into protein levels, enabling differentiation between distinct phenotypes. OLINK, a biotechnology company from Uppsala, Sweden, offers a targeted, affinity-based protein measurement method called Target 96, which has become prominent in the field of proteomics. The SCALLOP consortium, for instance, contains data from over 70.000 individuals across 45 independent cohort studies, all sampled by OLINK. However, when independent cohorts want to collaborate and quantitatively compare their target 96 protein values, it is currently advised to include 'identical biological bridging' samples in each sampling run to perform a reference sample normalization, correcting technical variations across measurements. Such a ‘biological bridging sample’ approach requires each of the involved cohorts to resend their biological bridging samples to OLINK to run them all together, which is logistically challenging, costly and time-consuming. Hence alternatives are searched and an evaluation of the current state of the art exposes the need for a more robust method that allows all OLINK Target 96 studies to compare proteomics data accurately and cost-efficiently. To meet these goals we developed the Synthetic Plasma Pool Cohort Correction, the ‘SPOC correction’ approach, based on the use of an OLINK-composed synthetic plasma sample. The method can easily be implemented in a federated data-sharing context which is illustrated on a sepsis use case.

Purpose Some prospective life cycle assessment (LCA) studies obtain information from patents, albeit without exploiting their full potential. The objective of this study is to show which data and information can be retrieved from patents to inform practitioners when conducting a prospective LCA of an emerging technology. Methods This study suggests which patent analysis techniques can be used to support which prospective LCA challenges, by reviewing patent analysis techniques and classifying the information that can be extracted from them according to those required to meet prospective LCA challenges. To illustrate the usefulness of the suggested techniques, a case study on solid oxide fuel cells is presented. Results and discussion The analyses of patent geographical jurisdiction, publication trend, maintenance costs, citations, and infringement can be used to define geographical and temporal scope and to select technology alternatives. Function(s), quantitative data, and information about scale-up and technological trends can be extracted from patents and used to predict function(s) of the new technology, fill the prospective life cycle inventory (pLCI), and choose existing LCI datasets. However, limitations of patents that could prevent their use in prospective LCA are as follows: (i) some information can be intentionally distorted to hinder competitors; (ii) patent bibliometric indicators to evaluate the future success of patented technology on the market can be overstated by patents of well-known owners that receive more citations and infringements albeit with no greater chance of future development; (iii) patenting to block competitors rather than to develop a new technology; (iv) the lack of significance of certain data due to the too low technology readiness level (TRL) of the prototype from which they were obtained; (v) a less than rigorous data examination process; and (vi) patents are not very helpful to quantify emissions. Conclusions We show how patents can be used to support prospective LCA when the assessment cannot count on the support of technology experts. We highlight how it is necessary to pay more attention, compared to the current practice in prospective LCA, to the peculiarities of patent prose and the legal and strategic use of patents by companies.

The current method for recovering iron oxide scale in the steel industry is not economically optimal, especially for high‐alloy scales found in alloyed steel. This study focuses on iron oxide scale containing valuable metals like chromium (Cr), molybdenum (Mo), and vanadium (V). The required carbon addition is calculated based on the iron and chromium oxides in the scale. The effects of varying carbon additions and reduction temperatures on reduction efficiency are thoroughly examined. Kinetic studies show that as temperature and carbon increase, the rate‐limiting step shifts from interfacial diffusion to interfacial reaction. Reduction experiments assess carbon utilization, metallization rate, deoxidation rate, and removal of harmful elements. Results show that high temperatures hinder sulfur (S) and phosphorus (P) removal, and excess carbon reduces carbon utilization efficiency. Optimal conditions are a carbon ratio of 0.2174 and a temperature of 1150 °C. The carbothermic reduction product requires further refinement through conventional ladle slag systems to meet the quality standards for metallic materials. Over 65% of alloying elements are recovered, though phosphorus content remains slightly higher than in finished alloy steel. The materials from this study are suitable as high‐quality intermediates for alloy steel production.