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Based on the achievements of the previous research and by exploring the original materials, such as the deeds in the Tsinghua University Library Collection, we examine the historical transformation and characteristics of China’s land tenure system in the past millennium, study its role in the traditional Chinese economy and its impact on economic changes in modern China, and seek academic originality and realistic theories revolving around China’s land tenure system. As a result of the completion of major projects of the National Social Science Fund, this book follows my previous study, Diquan shichang yu ziyuan peizhi (Land Rights Market and Resource Allocation). It provides an in-depth study of the topic and strengthens the systematic discussion to form an interpretative framework.
In China’s history, land rights transactions have taken various types, each with its own characteristics and connectedness, structuring a hierarchical and inherently logical system of land rights transactions, which includes: taijie (loan through the land as collateral), zudian (tenancy), yazu (rent deposit), dian (conditional sales), diya (mortgages), huomai (revocable sales), and juemai (irrevocable sales). If we examine the classification of dian in the Qing Dynasty from the perspective of land rights stratification and transaction, we find that dian refers to a transaction between the land management with all of its proceeds and interest in an agreed period, rather than the so-called offset of rent and interest (zuxi xiangdi). The redemption mechanism, which includes the use of dian, huomai, and yazu, had effectively preserved the willingness of peasant households to secure and resume their land ownerships and reduced the space for easy property transfers caused by juemai, or diya of a usurious nature. A multi-layered land rights transaction system enables peasant households to make choices according to market prices and risk appetites, cater to their own needs, and help to achieve cross-time regulation between current and future yields, thereby facilitating the combination of land circulation and productive factors and improving economic efficiency.
Chinese traditional economics had two basic features compared to Western European societies: the trading of land rights and the operation of family farms. These two factors provide a unique development path for China’s traditional agricultural economy.
Traditional China and premodern Western Europe differed in many ways and contrasted sharply. For example, equal inheritance versus primogeniture; early marriage and early childbearing versus late marriage and birth control; labor-intensive versus labor-saving; individual family farm operation versus large-scale manorial operation; intensive farming versus a combination of agriculture and pastoral farming, and so on.
The proportion of farmland occupied by landlords and rich peasants was an important indicator of the distribution of land rights in the modern era and a basis for understanding China’s land property system and modern economy. However, there has been a lack of convincing primary data on land issues in modern China. In the 1940s and 1950s, an informative nationwide survey was conducted for land reforms under the leadership of the Chinese Communist Party. Although accurate national data were not published then, this land survey laid some foundation for subsequent statistical work. This chapter examines the proportion of land held by the top 10% of the wealthy rural class on the eve of the Land Reform Movement, based on the data collected by the land reform survey while referring to survey data from the Republican Period. According to our study, the accuracy of the data from the southern provinces was around 30% (± 5%), while the data from the northern provinces was well below this level. Moreover, the actual comprehensive data was even lower than the level presented by this data if the occupation status of land rights such as top-soil right, permanent tenancy rights, and common land was considered. This chapter argues that previous studies have exaggerated the phenomenon and trend of land concentration in modern China, and one of the crucial reasons for this exaggeration was the neglect of the role played by the negative feedback mechanisms that inhibited and hedged against the concentration of land rights.
As the primary production source in an agricultural society, farmland and its related institutions underlie the processes of resource allocation and business operations. To analyze them is the first and most fundamental task if one wants to understand the transformation of China from a traditional society to a modern one. Such understanding is also key to the current agricultural reforms and is of exceptional theoretical value for world economic history. While previous understanding and assessments of this fundamental issue were anything but uniform, breakthroughs have been made over the recent two decades.
Under the traditional economy, the nature of human beings and the origin of the economy were more easily presented. Therefore, from a methodological point of view, revealing the core and essence of things in a simple state first and then adding other variables to observe the changes in complex phenomena and affairs can avoid putting the cart before the horse.
As farmland rights transactions developed, transaction rules or practices recognized by the counterparties spontaneously emerged within the market, regulated by state laws. Both the development and maturation of these rules of land rights transactions and people’s understanding of them have undergone a long process. Take the example of dian transactions (conditional sales). In the Song Dynasty, the rule that “the dian transaction requires [the landowner] leaving the property” (dianxu liye) in fact clarified the origin of “dian,” but its derived rights and interests and their diverse manifestations have given rise to ambiguities in the later dynasties. For instance, in the Song, it was not recognized by the government for the dian buyers to lease the land to the dian sellers; however, in the Qing, this form was widely accepted and thus created the illusion of an apparent “balancing of rent and interest” (zuxi xiangdi). In fact, the dian buyers deciding to operate or invest the income of the dian land, or to realize the future income, according to their own preferences and needs, was a manifestation of a shared land rights pattern constructed by the three parties: the landowner, the dian buyer, and the tenant farmer through market transactions.
Concerning farmland property rights, there were several groups of concepts. This book will focus on explaining farmland rights in as simple terms as possible without entangling the identification of legal terms. It pays attention to farmland rights, including rights at different levels and at different periods; they were not only civil customs practiced by ordinary people but were also recognized and protected by government and law. First were private property rights, legal property rights, and state property rights, and we will discuss these later.
China’s aging population has gained significant attention. Population aging implies that the demand for elderly care services will be on the rise. However, China’s aging exhibits a notable characteristic of getting old prior to achieving affluence, which directly constrains the enhancement of the level of elderly care services. The Communist Party of China and the government attach considerable importance to the issue of population aging and pensions. The Third Plenary Session of the 20th CPC Central Committee adopted the Decision of the CPC Central Committee on Further Comprehensively Deepening Reform and Promoting Chinese-Style Modernization, emphasizing that “we should actively respond to population aging and improve the development of elderly care and elderly care industry policy mechanisms.” Regarding the supply of pension services, due to the professional and long-term nature of pension services, the supply cost remains high. The contradiction between the low level of demand and the high cost of supply might lead to the “low-level equilibrium trap” of the elderly service industry. The digital economy has achieved remarkable effects in promoting the elderly care service industry. It has played a vital role in optimizing the allocation of elderly care resources, reducing the cost of elderly care services, and creating a superior elderly care ecosystem. In this context, it holds considerable academic value and practical significance to study the impact of the digital economy on the development of pension service industry, to analyze the digital divide and bridge the path for the development of the pension service industry, and to explore the countermeasures and ideas of the digital economy to facilitate the high-level, balanced, and high-quality development of the pension service industry.
This paper constructs a more unified measurement framework from the perspective of the Leontief inverse matrix and Ghosh inverse matrix (Ghosh). At the same time, referring to the four-term decomposition method of Leontief inverse matrix in Muradov (2016), this paper analyzes the structural decomposition of the cumulative tariff cost rate. Results show that (1) Overall, from 2000 to 2017, China’s cumulative tariff cost rate, direct tariff cost rate, and multi-stage tariff cost rate all showed a downward trend, and the decline was greater than that of other countries (regions). China has strictly fulfilled its WTO accession commitments and has greatly reduced the tariff rate on imported intermediate goods. (2) With China’s deep participation in the global value chain, the amplification effect of China’s tariffs has increased from 2.57 in 2000 to 3.17 in 2017, and there is a certain degree of “amplification effect” (above 1.5) in tariffs in all countries in the world. (3) From the perspective of the contribution rate of various countries in the world, China contributes the most to the global cumulative tariff cost rate, which is due to the complexity of the global production network structure, rather than the excessively high tariff rate imposed by China on imported intermediate goods. In terms of policy implications, if China did not take the initiative to reduce tariffs, the structural changes in the global production network would lead to a larger global cumulative tariff cost rate.
The economic growth of administrative boundaries is often relatively backward due to geographical barriers and administrative divisions. In this study, a dataset comprising 31 Chinese provinces spanning the period 2010 to 2019 is chosen. The ordinary panel model, spatial Durbin model, spatial mediation effect model are used to study the direct effect, spatial spillover effect and mechanisms of new infrastructure on economic growth at administrative boundaries. The results show that new infrastructure positively influences the economic growth of administrative boundaries, and there is a spatial spillover effect. This conclusion holds even after a series of robustness tests and endogenous treatments. The main impact mechanisms are overcoming geographical barriers and mitigating the effects of administrative divisions. The results of the heterogeneity test show that information infrastructure, large-scale provinces, and the eastern region have the most significant effect on economic growth at administrative boundaries. The findings of this paper provide a decision-making basis for optimizing investment in new infrastructure and promoting high-quality economic growth.
China’s trading scheme for voluntary greenhouse gas (GHG) emission reductions, i.e. China Certified Emission Reduction (CCER), is an important policy tool to promote GHG emission reduction through market mechanisms and help achieve carbon peaking and carbon neutrality goals (the “dual carbon” goals). The CCER trading scheme was initiated in 2012, and after five years of practical exploration, it has provided an effective channel for the whole society to actively participate in carbon emission reductions. Since 2023, the relevant state departments have issued the Measures for the Administration of Voluntary Greenhouse Gas Emission Reduction Trading (Trial) and released the first batch of four project-specific methodologies and five verification institutions, marking the basic completion of the institutional framework of the CCER trading market. In January 2024, the CCER trading market was officially launched, and has been operated in a stable and orderly way, with its policy role of low-cost emission reduction through market mechanisms gradually coming into play. It should be also noted that, in the early stage of its start-up, the market still faces problems such as insufficient market supply, uncertain integration with international schemes, and relatively lagging behind in capacity building, which need to be gradually addressed in the development process. On that basis, this paper gives an outlook.
As a key region for the origin and development of Chinese civilization, the relationship between the Holocene environment and human culture in the Luoyang area has garnered significant attention. However, the lack of long-term and multi-factor studies impedes our understanding of the overall characteristics of environmental systems and their interactions with human cultures. Based on extensive field investigations, we conducted a comprehensive study of the BZ profile, which exhibits continuous sedimentation and abundant paleoenvironmental information. The Holocene evolution of climate, deposition, hydrology, and landforms was analyzed, and the human-environment interaction was also examined. The findings demonstrate that the regional Holocene climate also exhibits fluctuations, albeit within a relatively narrow range. The regional sediment was predominantly composed of aeolian loess-paleosols during the early to middle Holocene, while the process of alluviation gradually intensified in the late Holocene. The moderate climatic fluctuations have facilitated the sustainable development of ancient cultures. The intensification of anthropogenic activities may contribute to the increased alluviation during the late Holocene. Ancient humans effectively adapted to this adverse condition by constructing city walls with flood control functions. Our study is significant for enhancing the comprehension of the operational characteristics inherent in human ecological systems.
Entrepreneurship is a typical socially embedded activity and informal social support reflects the functional manifestation of unique social relationships among rural migrants. Given the limited attention in existing research, we employed data from the nationally representative China Labor‐force Dynamics Survey to investigate the impact and mechanism of informal social support on rural migrants' entrepreneurial income. We found that informal social support and its sub‐dimensions (instrumental and emotional support) significantly positively affect rural migrants' entrepreneurial income. A series of endogeneity and robustness tests substantiate this conclusion. Mechanism analysis suggests that these effects occur through the enhancement of entrepreneurial passion and mental health. Furthermore, using a cutting‐edge machine learning method (generalised random forests) to determine the basis for variable selection in heterogeneity testing, the results reveal that industry and age have the highest importance. Subsequent analysis shows that the above effects were more significant among rural migrant entrepreneurs in labour‐intensive industries and the younger generation. Finally, the theoretical and practical significance of this study has been discussed.
Smart city policies, pivotal to fostering sustainable urban growth, can profoundly affect the micro-strategies of corporations, including strategic planning and operational tactics, ultimately shaping their environmental performance. In this study, we delve into the influence of smart city policies on the environmental performance of Chinese corporations, drawing on a comprehensive dataset from A-share listed companies nearly two decades, from 2003 to 2020. By applying a staggered differences-in-differences methodology, our findings indicate a significant enhancement in corporate environmental performance due to smart city policies. Mechanism analysis uncovers that the enhancement stems from a surge in green technology innovation and the embrace of digital transformation. Moreover, the policies are found to notably amplify environmental performance in Eastern China's corporations, among those subject to stringent environmental regulations, and notably within the high-tech and non-state-owned sectors. The findings underscore the pivotal role of smart city policies in bolstering corporate sustainability, offering policymakers critical insights to foster sustainable urban development. The research highlights the crucial need for tailored policy implementations that can optimize environmental gains across various regions and enterprise types.
Background
The impact of COVID-19 on older adults’ personality development is essential for emergency management but under-researched. This study seeks to explore the personality profiles of older adults living in the United States and how these profiles transitioned during the pandemic.
Methods
Longitudinal data were collected from 3,550 adults aged 60 and older who participated in both the 2016 and 2020 waves of the Health and Retirement Survey (61.18% female, mean age 65.85 in 2016). Personality traits were assessed using the Midlife Development Inventory. COVID-19-related experiences including pandemic concerns, restricted healthcare access, financial instability, work challenges, disrupted social connections, and mutual aid behaviors. Latent Profile Analysis and Transition Analysis were used for analysis.
Results
Three distinct personality profiles were identified: Well-adjusted, Moderate-adjusted, and Poor-adjusted. About 42% of respondents experienced personality changes during the pandemic. Higher levels of COVID-19 concern were linked to an increased likelihood of transitioning to Poor-adjusted from Moderate (OR=1.06, p<0.05) or Well-adjusted (OR=1.05, p<0.01). Challenges such as healthcare delays and financial hardships hindered transitions from Poor- to Moderate-adjusted (Healthcare delay: OR=0.39, p<0.05; Financial hardships: OR=0.67, p<0.05) but increased the likelihood of Moderate-adjusted individuals transitioning to Poor-adjusted (Healthcare delay: OR=1.46, p<0.05; Financial hardships: OR=1.51, p<0.05). However, Poor-adjusted individuals who provided help to others were more likely to transition to Moderate-adjusted (OR=2.71, p<0.01).
Conclusions
Personality transitions during crisis are significant among older adults. Future interventions should focus on addressing traumatic concerns, encouraging helping behaviors, and mitigating healthcare and financial challenges to support older adults’ personality development during crisis.
It has been widely recognized that accelerating green residential energy transition from traditional solid fuels (biomass and coal) to clean and high-efficient energy sources is critical for rural sustainable development. However, little attention has been paid to estimate panel data discrete choice models to analyze the dynamic behavior information of individual households in the process of energy transition. Hence, this paper investigates green residential energy transition using a panel dataset from 3308 rural households in eight provinces of China in 2015 and 2018. The results show that although traditional solid biomass still plays a dominating role in rural residential energy choice, fuel switching from solid fuels to modern clean energy alternatives is taking place. Off-farm employment plays an important role in the transition towards more sustainable energy sources, as households with off-farm employed heads and higher off-farm income level are highly likely to choose superior energy alternatives other than traditional biomass. Besides, the educational level of the household head and household location are also important influencing factors of household residential energy choices. Based on these findings, this paper suggests that job creation in non-farm sectors should be given a priority in future policy design to promote rural green energy transition in residential sector. North–south differences should be taken into account, whereas more policy options for optimizing biomass energy use should be explored.
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