China Earthquake Administration

The application of 2-2 cement-based piezoelectric transducers (2-2) in the field of structural health monitoring (SHM) encounters obstacles due to temperature effects. To address this issue, this study investigates the effect of temperature on the electro-mechanical admittance (EMA) spectrum of the 2-2 and piezoelectric smart aggregates (SA), employing both theoretical and experimental approaches. Initially, the admittance temperature effect was scrutinized based on the 2-2 theory. Subsequently, experiments were conducted to assess the admittance temperature effects of the 2-2 and SA. Finally, both the 2-2 and SA were embedded in cement mortar specimens, and the admittance temperature effect was analyzed. Experimental results reveal that temperature variation induced distinct behaviors in the EMA characteristics of 2-2 and SA in low and high frequency bands. Theoretical investigations and experimental results demonstrate a certain degree of consistency. When the sensors were embedded within the cement specimens, its EMA spectrum and the temperature sensitivity of the EMA change, particularly evident in the conductance peaks. This should be taken into consideration in future work involving SHM using the 2-2 sensors.

The study area is rich in shale gas resources and has reached the stage of comprehensive development. Shale gas extraction poses risks such as induced seismicity and well closure, compounded by the limited availability of fixed seismic monitoring stations nearby. To address these challenges, a dense observation array was developed within the study area to monitor and analyze microseismic activity during hydraulic fracturing. Microseismic events generated by hydraulic fracturing typically exhibit low amplitude and signal-to-noise ratio, rendering traditional manual analysis methods impractical. To overcome these limitations, an innovative artificial intelligence method combining picking-association-location (PAL) and match-expand-shift-stack (MESS) techniques (PALM) has been utilized for automated seismic detection. Numerous factors influence the accuracy of microseismic detection and localization. To evaluate these factors, the effects of various velocity structure models, instrument types, and station distributions on seismic location were analyzed and compared. The results indicate that the PALM method significantly mitigates the influence of velocity structure models on seismic location accuracy. Additionally, the use of broadband seismic instruments and a uniform station distribution enhances the precision of seismic location results. Furthermore, by integrating data from different types of observation instruments, a comprehensive seismic catalog for the study area was established. These findings not only enhance seismic location accuracy but also provide valuable guidance for optimizing regional seismic monitoring network design and improving seismic risk assessment.

Underground traffic structures can ease the traffic pressure on ground traffic and alleviate the effect of urban heat wave. The structural failure of underground structures caused by earthquakes is one of the crucial hazards in the field of urban underground transportation engineering. The structural safety is an important symbol of urban sustainability and resilience. To investigate the failure modes and mechanical performances of immersion joints under the effects of spatially varying seismic ground motions, an eccentric cyclic loading method has been proposed in the study. For comparison, both the conventional centric cyclic loading condition and novel eccentric cyclic loading condition have been considered in the research. Based on the numerical results, the failure modes, load-carrying properties, ductility, stiffness, and energy dissipation characteristics of the immersion joint have been synthetically analyzed. The results show that the loading conditions have obvious influence on the internal force evolution mechanism of the immersion joint. Under eccentric cyclic loading, the plastic damages occur at the horizontal shear keys, vertical shear keys, and even the left side wall of the tunnel element. As a result of comparison, the ductility coefficient value of the immersion joint under eccentric cyclic loading in the negative direction is 12.4% smaller than that under centric cyclic loading. The immersion joint exposed to eccentric cyclic loading exhibits worse aseismic performance than that under centric cyclic loading.

The Yabrai range‐front fault (YRF) is a large‐scale fault within the Alashan Block, located northeast of the Tibetan Plateau, which has undergone several surface rupture events on the southwestern and middle segments since the late Quaternary. As no relevant research has been conducted on the northeastern segment, paleoseismic data for this area are lacking, which restricts our overall understanding of the spatiotemporal and intensity distribution of strong earthquakes on the YRF. To address this problem, we conducted investigations based on trench wall interpretation and stratigraphic optically stimulated luminescence ages. Four paleoearthquakes were identified in the middle of the northeastern segment, and occurred after 11.6 ± 0.7 ka and between 11.6 ± 0.7 to 6.9 ± 0.5, 6.9 ± 0.5 to 4.8 ± 0.6 and 4.8 ± 0.6 to 3.9 ± 0.7 ka, respectively. Three paleoearthquake events, one of which occurred at around 23.6 ± 1.6 ka, were identified at the northeastern end of the fault. According to the spatiotemporal distribution of the ruptured events on the YRF, the middle segment may be a long seismic gap (~8 ka), and combined with the status of tectonic stress concentration, this segment can be regarded as a zone of high seismic probability with the ability to produce a magnitude 7.2 earthquake. Furthermore, from the late Pleistocene to early Holocene, cascading ruptures may have occurred on the middle and northeastern segments of the YRF, with magnitudes approaching 7.3. In terms of tectonic relationships, we suggest that the YRF and the Langshan piedmont fault are two independent faults even though they are connected.

Considering 1173 recordings of 35 stations from 67 aftershocks of the 12 May 2008 Wenchuan Mw (moment magnitude) 7.9 earthquake, we investigate site amplifications and their variations in the Longmenshan region. Site responses of 35 stations are analyzed using the coda-wave and S-wave methods. For these methods, the site amplifications are computed using a generalized inversion method. Generally, the calculated site amplifications from coda-wave and S-wave inversions are not very large, which is probably resulted from the special geology conditions in the Longmenshan region and most peak ground acceleration values of recordings less than 0.1 g. Because coda-wave amplitudes attenuate slowly along the propagation path, the site amplifications computed through the coda-wave inversion are relatively larger than those through the S-wave inversion. The comparison of the intraevent and interevent residuals of the coda-wave inversion with those of S-wave inversion demonstrates that the coda-wave inversion is more reasonable to calculate the site amplifications of the Longmenshan region. Moreover, for the Longmenshan region, the averaged site amplifications of the young geology sediments are not considerably different from those of the old geology rocks in some frequencies. If the sites of stations are classified by the National Earthquake Hazard Risk Reduction Program (NEHRP) site classifications, the averaged site coefficients of the Longmenshan region are usually smaller than the corresponding NEHRP site coefficients.

In this research, the microbial-induced carbonate precipitation (MICP) technique combined with cement was proposed to improve the physical and mechanical properties of silt. A series of comparative experiments of the MICP technique combined with cement treatments on silt (MICP-reinforced soil-cement) were conducted. The unconfined compressive strength (UCS), internal friction angle, cohesive force, and ultrasonic velocity of the silt treated with the MICP technique combined with cement were higher than those treated with cement. The X-ray diffraction (XRD) and scanning electron microscope (SEM) tests showed that the cement hydration products cemented the silt into agglomerates and formed a skeleton, and the calcite produced by the MICP process covered the surface of the agglomerates and filled the silt pores and cemented the particles, which played a role in increasing the strength of the specimens. In addition, the products and reactants of MICP accelerated the hydration reaction of the cement and played a role in the curing system consistent with carbonate-based and alkaline earth metal–based early-strengthening agents. The results of this study will provide basic theoretical and experimental data for the research and application of microbe-based treatment approaches for silt.

Ecosystem service value (ESV) is essential for understanding regional ecological benefits and resources. This study utilizes the fourth phase of land use data from the Resource and Environment Science Data Centre of the Chinese Academy of Sciences. We corrected the ESV coefficient using the equivalent factor method for value per unit area and integrated the biomass factor of farmland ecosystems in Shaanxi Province. This allowed us to adjust the equivalent factor for China’s terrestrial ecosystem on a geographic scale. Based on these corrections, we analyzed changes in land use and the evolution of ecosystem service value over the past two decades in Xi’an, China. Our findings indicate that the proportions of cultivated and forest land in Xi’an remained stable from 2000 to 2020, despite an increase in construction land and a decrease in cultivated areas. Forest and unused lands remained stable, while grassland and water bodies fluctuated. The ESV related to land use in Xi’an increased by 938.8 million yuan during this period, with high-value areas primarily located in the forested regions south of the Qinling Mountains and along the Weihe, Bahe, and Chanhe Rivers. Low–value zones were concentrated in the urban core. This research enhances methodologies for quantifying urban ESV, providing vital support for land resource management, ecological conservation, and high-quality urban development in major cities in China. These findings will inform policy-making for sustainable urban growth.

Plain Language Summary Currently, the ambiguous tectonic crosscutting relationship between two giant fault systems (Xianshuihe‐Xiaojiang Fault system (XXFS) and Red‐River Fault System) forms two types of different kinematic models of the SE Tibetan Plateau, thus leading to heated debate among researchers. The key reason for this ambiguous recognition is the blurry view of the faulting activity of the Jianshui Fault (JSF) or the south‐end area of the XXFS. Based on tectonogeomorphic interpretations of optical imagery, digital elevation model‐derived hillshades, contour maps, and field observations of geomorphic features, a surface rupture zone with a maximum length of ∼75 km and a maximum offset of ∼6.8 m along the JSF has been identified. The most recent surface rupture event was linked to the AD1606 M63/4 Jianshui Earthquake. The magnitude of the AD1606 quake has now been re‐estimated at Mw 7.1–7.9, indicating a much stronger faulting activity of the JSF than previously believed. We further propose an updated geodynamic model for the southeastern margin of the Tibetan Plateau.

On 5 September 2022, the moment magnitude (Mw) 6.7 Luding earthquake struck in the Xianshuihe Fault system on the eastern edge of the Tibet Plateau, illuminating the seismic gap in the Moxi segment. The fault system geometry and rupture process of this earthquake are relatively complex. To better understand the underlying driving mechanisms, this study first uses the Interferometric Synthetic Aperture Radar (InSAR) technique to obtain static surface displacements, which are then combined with Global Positioning System (GPS) data to invert the coseismic slip distribution. A machine learning approach is applied to extract a high-quality aftershock catalog from the original seismic waveform data, enabling the analysis of the spatiotemporal characteristics of aftershock activity. The catalog is subsequently used for fault fitting to determine a reliable fault geometry. The coseismic slip is dominated by left-lateral strike-slip motion, distributed within a depth range of 0–15 km, with a maximum fault slip > 2 m. The relocated catalog contains 15,571 events. Aftershock activity is divided into four main seismic clusters, with two smaller clusters located to the north and south and four interval zones in between. The geometry of the five faults is fitted, revealing the complexity of the Xianshuihe Fault system. Additionally, the Luding earthquake did not fully rupture the Moxi segment. The unruptured areas to the north of the mainshock, as well as regions to the south near the Anninghe Fault, pose a potential seismic hazard.

Lateral inhomogeneity in the Earth’s mantle affects the tidal response. The current study reformulates the expressions for estimating the lateral inhomogeneity effects on tidal gravity with respect to the unperturbed Earth and supplements some critical derivation process to enhance the methodology. The effects of lateral inhomogeneity are calculated using several real Earth models. By considering the collective contributions of seismic wave velocity disturbances and density disturbance, the global theoretical changes of semidiurnal gravimetric factor are obtained, which vary from − 0.22 to 0.22% compared to those in a layered Earth model, about 1/2 of the ellipticity’s effect. The gravity changes caused by lateral-inhomogeneous disturbances are also computed and turn out to be up to 0.16% compared to the changes caused by tide-generating potential. The current study compares the influences of lateral inhomogeneity with rotation and ocean tide loading. The results indicate that the rotation and ellipticity on tidal gravity are the most dominant factors, the ocean tide loading is the moderate one, and the lateral inhomogeneity in the mantle has the least significant influence. Moreover, an anti-correlation between the effective elastic thickness and gravimetric factor change caused by lateral inhomogeneity is found, implying that it is difficult to generate tidal response at regions with high rigidity. We argue that the gravimetric factor change can be used as an effective indicator for lithospheric strength.

On February 6, 2023, southeastern Türkiye experienced a devastating earthquake doublet along the East Anatolian Fault (EAF), with moment magnitude (MW) values of 7.8 and 7.5. These strong earthquakes resulted in at least 50,000 deaths and severe economic losses. Systematic research on coseismic surface ruptures induced by these events is vital for assessing the cascade rupture behaviors of plate boundary faults and future seismic hazards in the region. Interpretation of high-resolution post-earthquake satellite images and field investigations yielded the following results: (1) the two strong earthquakes had separate rupture zones. The first earthquake generated an approximately 280 km coseismic surface rupture along the southwestern segment of the main EAF, with 241 left-lateral displacements reaching up to 6.8±0.68 m, particularly 40 km northeast of the epicenter. The second earthquake produced a roughly 110 km surface rupture on an east-west branch of the EAF, with maximum displacements of 7.2±0.72 m. (2) The MW7.8 earthquake resulted in a cascading rupture across multiple segments of the southwestern section of the main EAF, with significantly variable displacements. The northeastern and southwestern parts of the main EAF and Malatya Fault remain at risk of strong earthquakes in the future. (3) The EAF rupture zone is densely populated, and due to the site amplification effect of loose sediments on foreland alluvial fans, foundation failures of buildings in the populated areas are common. Therefore, it is crucial to enhance the future seismic fortification capabilities in urban and rural areas along the EAF.

Plain Language Summary Rocket launches are becoming more frequent worldwide. It is important to understand how the rocket launch affects the Earth's upper atmosphere and ionosphere. Previous studies showed that the launches of rockets often trigger TIDs with V‐shaped structures in the geographic longitude and latitude plane. In this study, the ionospheric responses to the launches of LM‐2D and LM‐6A rockets were investigated. The ionosphere was significantly disturbed by the two rocket launches. Results show that after the launch, significant TEC depletions were observed, with a maximum decrease ∼20 TEC unit, and extended for more than 1,500 km along the rocket flight trajectory forming “a plasma hole.” Traveling ionospheric disturbances were induced by the shock waves that were triggered by the rocket supersonic flight. Following the shock waves, another type of ionospheric disturbances was induced by acoustic waves and emanated outward periodically for a distance more than 1,500 km. One interesting aspect is that these disturbances exhibited unusual semicircular and circular structures. By conducting a comparative study of the two different rocket launch missions (i.e., different rocket type, flight trajectory), possible factors responsible for the semicircular and circular structures were discussed.

Plain Language Summary The ionospheric responses to strong geomagnetic storms are mainly in the form of global or hemispheric scale plasma density enhancement or suppression, termed as positive or negative ionospheric storms, respectively. Previous studies have also reported fine‐scale ionospheric structures during geomagnetic storms, which were manifested as wavelike fluctuations in TEC. Multiple mechanisms were proposed to be responsible for the TEC fluctuations, including the magnetospheric compression effect, storm‐time penetration electric field, refilling process linked with plasma pressure, and traveling ionospheric disturbances triggered from high latitude and polar regions. During the May 2024 super storm, complex ionospheric fluctuations consisting of two major components, that is, poleward extending fluctuations originated from the magnetic equator and equatorward traveling oscillations from high latitude and polar regions were observed over East and Southeast Asia. It is important to figure out what mechanisms could dominate the generation and evolution of complex fluctuations over specific regions. Based on the TEC continuously measured along dense observational chains, in combination with multiple other types of observations, the characteristics and possible mechanisms of the complex ionospheric fluctuations are investigated.

In recent years, various real-time processing methods have been developed for Satellite Laser Ranging (SLR) data. However, the recognition rate of the single-stage Graz filtering algorithm for high-orbit satellites is less than 1%, and traditional two-stage filtering algorithms, such as polynomial fitting and iterative filtering techniques, exhibit high false and missed detection rates. These issues compromise the accuracy of laser positioning and real-time adjustments during observations. To address these problems, we propose a new, efficient real-time SLR data processing method. This algorithm combines single-stage filtering with a histogram-based approach and incorporates polynomial fitting to establish a predictive model. This offers the advantage of fast and efficient real-tim e signal recognition. The experimental results demonstrate that the proposed algorithm compensates for the limitations of single-stage filtering algorithms and performs better than traditional two-stage filtering algorithms in identifying medium- and high-orbit satellite signals. The false detection rate was reduced to below 15%, while achieving faster computation speeds. This method is convenience for researchers in their observations and offers new insights and directions for further research and application in the real-time identification of satellite laser ranging echo signals.

Taking the carbonate of the Majiagou Formation in the Ordos Basin as an example, this paper introduces a method for predicting the S-wave velocity of carbonate based on rock physics modeling. By analyzing the samples in the study area, we can find that the carbonate reservoirs in the study area have the following characteristics: (1) The lithology of the Majiagou Formation in the Ordos Basin is relatively complex, mainly composed of dolomite, lime dolomite, dolomitic limestone, gypsum, and gypsum-bearing dolomite. The pore types include intergranular pores formed by dolomitization, intergranular dissolution pores formed by dissolution, and fractures. (2) Due to the diverse types and complex distribution of rock-forming minerals, there are always some rock samples whose matrix modulus is beyond the upper or lower limits. Those were calculated using the Voigt–Reuss–Hill (VRH) average method. (3) The pore structure of carbonate is very complex due to diagenesis. Based on the influence of pore shape characteristics on rock elastic parameters, pore shapes are divided into three types using the pore aspect ratio. Among them, the aspect ratio of intergranular pores is the largest, while that of the fracture pores is the smallest, and the aspect ratio of intergranular dissolved pores falls between the two. Therefore, the accuracy of predicting S-wave velocity in this area based on traditional rock physics modeling methods is low. In this paper, we will introduce a new model that is aimed at improving the traditional rock physics model. The first improvement is based on a variable matrix modulus, which can be used for matrix modeling to mitigate the influence of uneven mineral distribution. The second enhancement involves quantitatively characterizing the impact of different pore aspect ratios on the S-wave velocity of carbonate rocks, using a porous differential equivalent medium (DEM) model.

Reliable in-situ stress information is of great significance for the stability assessment and the large deformation mechanism research of deep soft rock roadways. We characterized the stress field of Jinchuan No. 2 Mine using the hydraulic fracturing stress measurement method. A total of 17 hydraulic fracturing measurements and 7 impression tests were conducted in three boreholes to estimate the stress state and variation characteristics at different locations 1000 m below the surface. The results indicate that the main characteristic of the stress field is SH > Sh > Sv, which is a strike-slip faulting regime stress, suggesting that horizontal compressive forces dominate the regional stress field. Based on the compiled hydraulic fracturing measurement data (a total of nine boreholes), we indicate that the maximum (SH) and minimum (Sh) horizontal principal stress magnitudes are 7.10–56.73 MPa and 6.44–24.91 MPa, respectively. The SH is dominantly oriented in the NE–NNE direction, which is consistent with the regional tectonic stress field. Finally, the squeezing large deformation analysis and risk assessment of the deep soft rock roadway in the Jinchuan No. 2 Mine were discussed. Significant squeezing deformation may occur in the sublevel 850 m. The radial strain ε of most roadways is between 2.5 and 10%, and only a few are greater than 10%, suggesting a very severe to extreme squeezing large deformation. The results of this study are of great significance for the study of the large deformation mechanism and the selection of matching support technology for the deep soft rock roadway in the Jinchuan No. 2 Mine in the future.

The eastern segment of the Sunan-Qilian Fault (ES-SQF) is located within the seismic gap between the 1927 M8.0 Gulang earthquake and the 1932 M7.6 Changma earthquake in China. It also aligns with the extension direction of the largest surface rupture zone associated with the 2022 Mw6.7 Menyuan earthquake. Understanding the activity parameters of this fault is essential for interpreting strain distribution patterns in the central–western segment of the Qilian–Haiyuan fault zone, located along the northeastern margin of the Tibetan Plateau, and for evaluating the seismic hazards in the region. High-resolution Google Earth satellite imagery and UAV (Unmanned Aerial Vehicle)-based photogrammetry provide favorable conditions for detailed mapping and the study of typical landforms along the ES-SQF. Combined with field geological surveys, the ES-SQF is identified as a continuous, singular-fault structure extending approximately 68 km in length. The fault trends in the WNW direction and along its trace, distinctive features, such as ridges, gullies, and terraces, show clear evidence of synchronous left lateral displacement. This study investigates the Qingsha River and the Dongzhong River. High-resolution digital elevation models (DEMs) derived from UAV imagery were used to conduct a detailed mapping of faulted landforms. An analysis of stripping trench profiles and radiocarbon dating of collected samples indicates that the most recent surface-rupturing seismic event in the area occurred between 3500 and 2328 y BP, pointing to the existence of an active fault from the Holocene epoch. Using the LaDiCaoz program to restore and measure displaced terraces at the study site, combined with geomorphological sample collection and testing, we estimated the fault’s slip rate since the Holocene to be approximately 2.0 ± 0.3 mm/y. Therefore, the ES-SQF plays a critical role in strain distribution across the central–western segment of the Qilian–Haiyuan fault zone. Together with the Tuolaishan fault, it accommodates and dissipates the left lateral shear deformation in this region. Based on the slip rate and the elapsed time since the last event, it is estimated that a seismic moment equivalent to Mw 7.5 has been accumulated on the ES-SQF. Additionally, with the significant Coulomb stress loading on the ES-SQF caused by the 2016 Mw 5.9 and 2022 Mw 6.7 Menyuan earthquakes, there is a potential for large earthquakes to occur in the future. Our results also indicate that high-resolution remote sensing imagery can facilitate detailed studies of active tectonics.

This study addresses the pressing challenge of generating realistic strong ground motion data for simulating earthquakes, a crucial component in pre-earthquake risk assessments and post-earthquake disaster evaluations, particularly suited for regions with limited seismic data. Herein, we report a generative adversarial network (GAN) framework capable of simulating strong ground motions under various environmental conditions using only a small set of real earthquake records. The constructed GAN model generates ground motions based on continuous physical variables such as source distance, site conditions, and magnitude, effectively capturing the complexity and diversity of ground motions under different scenarios. This capability allows the proposed model to approximate real seismic data, making it applicable to a wide range of engineering purposes. Using the Shandong Pingyuan earthquake as an example, a specialized dataset was constructed based on regional real ground motion records. The response spectrum at target locations was obtained through inverse distance–weighted interpolation of actual response spectra, followed by continuous wavelet transform to derive the ground motion time histories at these locations. Through iterative parameter adjustments, the constructed GAN model learned the probability distribution of strong-motion data for this event. The trained model generated three-component ground-motion time histories with clear P-wave and S-wave characteristics, accurately reflecting the non-stationary nature of seismic records. Statistical comparisons between synthetic and real response spectra, waveform envelopes, and peak ground acceleration show a high degree of similarity, underscoring the effectiveness of the model in replicating both the statistical and physical characteristics of real ground motions. These findings validate the feasibility of GANs for generating realistic earthquake data in data-scarce regions, providing a reliable approach for enriching regional ground motion databases. Additionally, the results suggest that GAN-based networks are a powerful tool for building predictive models in seismic hazard analysis.

Groundwater withdrawal and recharge lead to changes in terrestrial hydrological loads, which in turn cause surface deformation. Based on poroelastic response and elastic loading theory, the 24 Global Positioning System (GPS) stations on the North China Plain (NCP) and the Gravity Recovery and Climate Experiment mission and its follow-on (GRACE/GRACE-FO) are first integrated to quantify the spatial–temporal changes in surface deformation and groundwater storage (GWS) during 2011–2022. The results show that the trends of GWS in the three periods of 2011–2017, 2018–2020, and 2021–2022 were − 2.56 ± 0.33 mm/yr, − 4.72 ± 1.74 mm/yr, and 11.76 ± 4.18 mm/yr, respectively. Most of the GPS stations showed a significant negative correlation between GWS and surface deformation under the elastic loading theory. In 2021, surface subsidence of more than 5 mm was experienced by 94% of the GPS stations, and 58% experienced more than 10 mm, further confirming that the South-to-North Water Diversion (SNWD) effectively replenishes groundwater resources in the NCP. The SNWD, precipitation, and human activity were the three principal factors influencing the groundwater in the NCP. SNWD effectively mitigated the continuous decrease of groundwater in the NCP.

The explosive eruptions of Changbaishan volcano in NE China since the late Pleistocene produced large pyroclastic deposits, including the large ones from the Tianwenfeng (TWF) eruption, the Chifeng stage of the Millennium Eruption (ME-Com), and the Yuanchi stage of the Millennium Eruption (ME-Tr). In this study, we analyzed the differences among these deposits through the analyses of their juvenile components and consequently the characteristics of the magma reflected in the field stratigraphy, particle size, petrography, and geochemistry. We quantitatively analyzed pumice texture and constrained on the eruption dynamics and intensities. We discovered that the ME-Tr deposits contain two types of pumice characterized by two distinct colors: earth-yellow and black. These pumice erupted in a pulsating way during the first stage of the ME-Tr eruption. Both pumice types have trachyte compositions, but the SiO2 contents of the black pumice (59.5–60.6 wt%, ME-Tr-b) are slightly lower than those of the earth-yellow pumice (62.1–63.3 wt%, ME-Tr-a). The black pumice at the Tianwenfeng summit is speculated to be a product of the late ME-Tr eruption (ME-Tr-c). The variety of the magma compositions and temperatures indicates that there may be three main crustal magma batches (ME-Com, ME-Tr-a, and ME-Tr-b) of distinct compositions and temperatures involved during the ME. The vesicle number density of the TWF pumice was the highest, as were the calculated decompression rate (0.5–3.7 MPa/s), height of the eruption column (22–37 km), and, consequently, the mass eruption rate. The eruption intensity of the ME was high during the ME-Com (as suggested by estimated column height of 24–30 km) and slightly decreased during the ME-Tr (17–29 km). The results of this study improve our understanding of the eruption mechanisms and the hazard assessments linked to the future Changbaishan eruptions.