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Visualisation of mire-specific biodiversity for the 30 sampled study sites in Brandenburg (northeast Germany (edited by J. Hammerich, source: County borders: VG250®ATKIS, ©BKG 2006).
Source publication
The biodiversity of mires is characterised by a small number of highly specialised species, mostly high spatial heterogeneity and a strong influence of abiotic factors such as high water table and soil substrate (peat). To assess mire-specific biodiversity, indicators that represent and value all of these characteristics are needed. In this study,...
Context in source publication
Context 1
... the scores as an overall description, the mire-specific biodiversity can be compared between two or more sites or, for a single peatland, before and after rewetting or across another defined time interval. Possible visualisations are shown in Figure 3 and, for the example of our 30 study sites, in Figure 4. Figure 3. Visualisation of overall mire-specific biodiversity of "Großes Brennbruch" before (2006) and after (2018) restoration. ...
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Citations
... Peatlands are facing severe, ongoing degradation globally through the combined effects of agriculture and forestry, leading to a carbon (C) loss of seven gigatons since 1750 (Loisel et al., 2021). These highly degraded drained peatlands lose their wetland-specific vegetation diversity (Hammerich et al., 2022) and the ability to store C and nutrients (Richardson and Marshall, 1986). Degraded peatlands are responsible for around 5% of global anthropogenic carbon dioxide (CO 2 ) emissions (Chaudhary et al., 2020;IPCC, 2022). ...
Introduction
Drainage for agricultural purposes is one of the main drivers of peatland degradation, leading to significant greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions, biodiversity loss, and soil eutrophication. Rewetting is a potential solution to restore peatlands, but it generally requires a land-use shift to paludiculture or nature areas.
Methods
This study explored whether three different water level management techniques (subsoil irrigation, furrow irrigation, and dynamic ditch water level regulation) could be implemented on dairy grasslands to yield increases in essential ecosystem services (vegetation diversity and soil biogeochemistry) without the need to change the current land use or intensity. We investigated vegetation diversity, soil biogeochemistry, and CO2 emission reduction in fourteen agricultural livestock pastures on drained peat soils in Friesland (Netherlands).
Results
Across all pastures, Shannon-Wiener diversity was below 1, and the species richness was below 5. The plant-available phosphorus (P) was consistently higher than 3 mmol L⁻¹. None of the water level management (WLM) techniques enhanced vegetation diversity or changed soil biogeochemistry despite a notable increase in water table levels. The potential for CO2 emission reduction remained small or even absent. Indicators of land-use intensity (i.e., grass harvest and fertilization intensity), however, showed a strong negative correlation with vegetation diversity. Furthermore, all sites’ total and plant-available P and nitrate exceeded the upper threshold for species-rich grassland communities.
Discussion
In conclusion, our research suggests that incomplete rewetting (i.e., higher water tables while maintaining drainage) while continuing the current land use does neither effectively mitigate GHG emissions nor benefit vegetation diversity. Therefore, we conclude that combining WLM and reducing land-use intensity is essential to limit the degradation of peat soils and restore more biodiverse vegetation.
... The Biodiversity Evaluation Site Type (BEST) approach uses regionally accepted biodiversity value assessment procedures, which are slightly modified if necessary. Hammerich et al. (2022) developed an indicator-based tool to assess mire-specific biodiversity in Brandenburg (Northeast Germany). By assessing the species, biocoenosis and ecosystem level of mire-specific biodiversity with 5 points each, an overall evaluation ranging from 0 (no mire-specific biodiversity) to 15 points (very high mire-specific biodiversity) is reached (Annex D). ...
... By choosing appropriate methods, regional/national, scientifically accepted and well-established approaches to ecosystem service assessment should be used. The approaches presented here have been elaborated for North Germany but Table 4 Mire-specific biodiversity for the baseline and project scenario and 5 years after rewetting based on Hammerich et al. (2022). See Annex D1 for classes and colour code. ...
... A precondition is the availability of reference systems, which are in a (near-)natural state. The list of mire-specific plants and mosses provided in Hammerich et al. (2022) is valid for north-east Germany and could be used for the rest of Germany with slight modifications. A good basis for determining miretypical and mire-specific species is provided by Joosten et al. (2017), who present the characteristic vascular plant and moss species of mires and peatlands in various European countries. ...
In 2011, MoorFutures® were introduced as the first standard for generating credits from peatland rewetting. We developed methodologies to quantify ecosystem services before and after rewetting with a focus on greenhouse gas emissions, water quality, evaporative cooling and mire-typical biodiversity. Both standard and premium approaches to assess these services were developed, and tested in the rewetted polder Kieve (NE-Germany). The standard approaches are default tier 1 estimation procedures, which require little time and few, mainly vegetation data. Based on the Greenhouse gas Emission Site Type (GEST) approach, emissions decreased from 1,306 t CO 2 e in the baseline scenario to 532 t CO 2 e in the project scenario, whereas 5 years after rewetting they were assessed to be 543 t CO 2 e per year. Nitrate release assessed via Nitrogen Emission Site Types (NEST) was estimated to decrease from 1,088 kg N (baseline) to 359 kg N (project), and appeared to be 309 kg N per year 5 years after rewetting. The heat flux − determined with Evapotranspiration Energy Site Types (EEST)-decreased from 6,691 kW (baseline) to 1,926 kW (project), and was 2,250 kW per year 5 years after rewetting. Mire-specific biodiversity was estimated to increase from very low (baseline) to high (project), but was only low 5 years after rewetting. The premium approaches allow quantifying a particular ecosystem service with higher accuracy by measuring or modelling. The approaches presented here have been elaborated for North-Germany but can be adapted for other regions. We encourage scientists to use our research as a model for assessing peatland ecosystem services including biodiversity in other geographical regions. Using vegetation mapping and indicator values derived from meta-analyses is a cost-efficient and robust approach to inform payment for ecosystem services schemes and to support conservation planning at regional to global scales.
... The once existing specific biodiversity of mires (peatlands with a vegetation that actively forms peat ) is lost, resulting for example in the decline of species, as 62% of mire-specific vascular plants in Brandenburg are listed as highly endangered, at risk of extinction or extinct (cf. LUA (Landesumweltamt Brandenburg), 2006;Luthardt, 2014;Hammerich et al., 2022). Ecosystem functions, such as stabilization of the landscape water balance or functioning as flood retention areas, water storage basins, groundwater nourishment areas and regulators of microclimate, are changed completely for the benefit of provisioning services (Luthardt & Wichmann, 2016). ...
... Further, as for mire-specific biodiversity described by Hammerich et al. (2022) not only on the level of species, but with peat accumulation and water table close to surface as determining eco-hydrological properties on the ecosystem level, the regeneration of the near-surface peat can also be seen as central for re-establishing the biodiversity of mires. We assume that along with the rise in water table, the decrease in nutrient availability enhances the potential for the recolonization by mire-specific plant species, which are not only adapted to water-saturation but often extreme pH values and nutrient conditions (cf. ...
Peatland restoration usually aims at restarting the peatlands' function to store carbon within peat. The soil properties of the near-surface peat can give a first understanding of this process. Therefore, we sampled pH value, total organic carbon content (TOC), total nitrogen content (TN), C/N ratio as well as dry bulk density (BD), and describe the structure of near-surface peats in six restored fens in North-East Germany before (2002-2004) and after (2019-2021) restoration. Before restoration, the study sites showed peat degradation to various extents in their near-surface peats. pH values remained relatively stable over time. Comparing the degraded peat horizons, TOC increased significantly in four study sites, ranging from 35.7% to 47.8% in 2002-2004 and from 42.5% to 54.0% in 2019-2021. TN varied from 1.5% to 3.5% in 2002-2004 and from 1.8% to 3.2% in 2019-2021, but changes were only significant in one site, showing a slight decrease. In three sites, the increase in C/N ratio was significant, indicating lower nutrient availability. BD ranged from 0.08 to 0.48 g/cm3 in 2002-2004 and from 0.10 to 0.16 g/cm3 in 2019-2021, decreasing significantly in four sites. The structure of the degraded peat horizons changed after restoration to a more homogenous, sludge mass with larger re-aggregates. In three sites, new peat moss peat layers above the degraded soil horizon were present in 2019-2021, with a mean thickness of 6.8 to 36.1 cm. The structure was comparable to typical, slightly decomposed peat moss peat. Our findings suggest that within about 17 years after fen restoration, and thereby a water table rise close to surface, TOC of the near-surface peats increased to values that are typical for undisturbed peatlands. This indicates that restoration can lead to the re-establishment of peatlands as potential carbon sinks, with TOC within the near-surface peat as one key factor in this process. Further, we assume that the decrease in nutrient availability, decrease of BD, and new, undisturbed peat layers can favor the establishment of mire-specific biodiversity and support ecosystem services similar to near-natural mires.
... Species were also evaluated qualitatively, both concerning their endangerment status and their typical habitat preference using literature for northeast Germany. Mire-specific plant species were identified using Hammerich et al. 85 and mire-specific spider species using Martin 86 . Furthermore, area-specific literature was used to determine the typical habitat for each species (vegetation 60,87 , breeding birds [88][89][90] , carabids 91 , and spiders 92,93 ). ...
Paludiculture, the productive use of wet or rewetted peatlands, offers an option for continued land use by farmers after rewetting formerly drained peatlands, while reducing the greenhouse gas emissions from peat soils. Biodiversity conservation may benefit, but research on how biodiversity responds to paludiculture is scarce. We conducted a multi-taxon study investigating vegetation, breeding bird and arthropod diversity at six rewetted fen sites dominated by Carex or Typha species. Sites were either unharvested, low- or high-intensity managed, and were located in Mecklenburg-Vorpommern in northeastern Germany. Biodiversity was estimated across the range of Hill numbers using the iNEXT package, and species were checked for Red List status. Here we show that paludiculture sites can provide biodiversity value even while not reflecting historic fen conditions; managed sites had high plant diversity, as well as Red Listed arthropods and breeding birds. Our study demonstrates that paludiculture has the potential to provide valuable habitat for species even while productive management of the land continues.
... Species were also evaluated qualitatively, both concerning their endangerment status and their typical habitat preference using literature for northeast Germany. Mire-specific plant species were identified using Hammerich et al. 79 and mire-specific spider species using Martin 80 . Furthermore, area-specific literature was used to determine the typical habitat for each species (vegetation, 58,81 breeding birds, [82][83][84] , carabids, 85, and spiders 86,87 ). ...
Paludiculture, the productive use of wet or rewetted peatlands, offers an option for continued land use by farmers after rewetting formerly drained peatlands, while reducing the greenhouse gas emissions from peat soils. Biodiversity conservation may benefit, but research on how biodiversity responds to paludiculture is scarce. We conducted a multi-taxon study investigating vegetation, breeding bird and arthropod diversity at six rewetted fen sites dominated by sedges (Carex species) or cattail (Typha species). Sites were either wild, low- or high-intensity managed. Biodiversity was estimated across the range of Hill numbers using the iNEXT package, and species were checked for Red List status. Here we show that paludiculture sites can provide biodiversity value even while not reflecting historic fen conditions; managed sites had high plant diversity and had Red Listed arthropods and breeding birds. Our study demonstrates that paludiculture has the potential to provide valuable habitat for species even while productive management of the land continues.
Rewetted bogs with high water levels (WL) and mire‐specific vegetation are crucial carbon (C) sinks, but their function might be threatened by tree encroachment, a phenomenon widespread in the northern hemisphere that often coincides with low WL. This might impact C cycling both at the ecosystem and microform scale in multiple ways, but so far, data are lacking. We established two sites in the same former peat extraction area, one showing permanently high WL and mire‐specific vegetation (open site, OS), while the other one has more fluctuating WL and a dense birch (Betula pubescens Ehrh.) population (tree site, TS). We measured the carbon dioxide (CO2) exchange at ecosystem (eddy covariance) and plot scale (chamber measurements) for 1 year to clarify the differences between the sites and the impact of birch encroachment on the contribution of the different bog‐specific microforms and the trees to the ecosystem's CO2 balance. Overall, the OS had a CO2 balance of −262.4 ± 7.8 g CO2‐C m⁻² year⁻¹ indicating CO2 uptake, while the TS was close to neutral (−28 ± 5.1 g CO2‐C m⁻² year⁻¹). The smaller uptake at the TS was caused by higher (151%) ecosystem respiration, while gross primary production was 14% higher. However, the microform contributions to C uptake strongly differed: At the OS, both hummocks and hollows showed net uptake, while at the TS, most C (52%) was assimilated by the birches and the understory was a net CO2 source. This indicates a loss of peat C from the TS, while the successfully rewetted site was accumulating new peat. Accounting for plot‐scale CH4 fluxes, both sites were a weak source of greenhouse gases, but a distinctly stronger C sink occurred at the OS. Our data show the possibility of increasing C removal from the atmosphere by full rewetting and the establishment of mire‐specific vegetation.
The paper aims to assess potential soil water repellency (SWR) in the surface layers of long-term agricultural fen soils. Furthermore, we attempt to enhance our understanding of the links between selected soil properties (e.g., secondary transformation, total organic carbon (TOC) content) and SWR in differently used (grasslands and arable lands) fen soils in the temperate climate zone. The study was conducted in the Grójec Valley, Central Poland. The soil samples for laboratory analyses were collected in June 2022 from 64 sampling points – 56 grassland and 8 arable sites. We found that secondary soil transformation (mursh forming process) was significantly positively correlated with SWR – determined by MED (molarity of ethanol droplet) and WDPT (water drop penetration time) methods (r = 0.42 and r = 0.40, p < 0.05) only in the organic samples (i.e., mursh). The significant positive correlation between SWR and TOC content (r = 0.73 (MED) and r = 0.74 (WDPT), p < 0.05) indicates that, as well as organic matter depletion, there was a decrease in the water repellency of the studied soils. Our results indicate that study fen sites should be rewetted, and that the implementation of the paludiculture must take place in the near future. At a minimum, further arable cultivation of organic soils should be avoided, as they are the most vulnerable to secondary transformation and exhibit high SWR values. Furthermore, in the case of crop production on post-organic soils, it is recommended that the conservation tillage method is applied to prevent further depletion of soil organic matter content.
Climate change is affecting the few remaining mires that are still accumulating peat. The question thus arising is this: To what extent can the resilience of these autochthonous ecosystems, in all their diversity, be enhanced? For this purpose, long-term observation series of mostly undisturbed peatlands in the Schorfheide-Chorin Biosphere Reserve in the German regional state of Brandenburg are evaluated. These are set in context with the findings of success monitoring of rewetted forest peatlands. A newly developed indicator system for assessing mire-specific biodiversity is used to evaluate the state of the peatland. In addition, greenhouse gas emissions are estimated using the GEST (greenhouse gas emissions habitat types) method and potential new peat formation is considered. The analyses show that the buffering capacity of peat accumulating peatlands in the study area is still intact and that disturbances can be overcome without changing the system. The waterlogging measures were consistently successful and led to a measurable revitalisation. The article underscores the urgent need to stabilise the water balance of all peatlands that are still in a near-natural state. This is vital in order to preserve them as important elements of autochthonous biodiversity with all their positive landscape functions.
