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Brain aging is a degenerative process manifest by impairment of cognitive function; although not all pets are affected at the same level, once cognitive decline begins it is generally a progressive disorder. Diagnosis of cognitive dysfunction syndrome (CDS) is based on recognition of behavioral signs and exclusion of other medical causes that might...
Contexts in source publication
Context 1
... and dietary interventions ( Table 4) can improve antioxidant defense thereby reducing the negative effects of free radicals. A senior diet (Canine b/d, Hills Pet Nutrition, Topeka, KS, USA) for dogs improves signs and slows the progress of cognitive decline. ...
Context 2
... behavioral signs associated with anxiety and night waking are highly prevalent in senior pets and greatly impact the owner-pet bond, it is prudent for the practitioner to rapidly address them. Drugs and natural remedies that help reduce anxiety and aid in reestablishing normal sleep-wake cycles can also be of benefit in senior pets alone or in conjunction with drugs for CDS (see Tables 3 and 4). ...
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Citations
... Canine cognitive dysfunction syndrome (CDS) is a neurodegenerative disorder observed in aging dogs, often compared to Alzheimer's disease (AD) in humans due to similar clinical signs and neuropathological features (1,2). CDS primarily affects dogs older than eight years, leading to progressive cognitive decline, behavioral abnormalities, and memory impairment, closely resembling human dementia (3). ...
... Despite these similarities, significant pathological distinctions exist. While both CDS and AD involve neuronal degeneration and vascular changes, hallmark features of AD, such as neurofibrillary tangles and Hirano bodies, are absent in dogs with CDS (1,2,5,6). Nevertheless, studies indicate that tau hyperphosphorylation and amyloid-β accumulation in the aging canine brain may contribute to cognitive impairment, reinforcing the need for further research into shared and distinct pathological mechanisms (6,7). Cerebrovascular pathology, including brain infarction, is uncommon in dogs and has rarely been documented alongside CDS (8). ...
... The identification of amyloid deposits and reactive gliosis supports the hypothesis that vascular amyloid pathology plays a contributory role in cognitive dysfunction (10,22). Such findings are consistent with studies demonstrating that dogs with CDS frequently exhibit amyloid deposition in the brain parenchyma and vasculature, suggesting shared mechanisms with AD (1,4,22). Frontiers in Veterinary Science 06 frontiersin.org ...
This case report describes a rare occurrence of canine cognitive dysfunction syndrome (CDS) accompanied by ischemic brain infarction, providing insights into the relationship between neurodegeneration and cerebrovascular pathology in aged dogs. A 19-year-old neutered male miniature poodle exhibited progressive behavioral changes over three years, including nocturnal restlessness, inappropriate urination, and aimless wandering. Neurological examination revealed mild disorientation, decreased proprioception, and weakened postural reactions in the hind limbs, with a cognitive dysfunction rating (CDDR) score of 64 indicating severe cognitive impairment. Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) revealed hallmark indicators of brain atrophy, such as widened cerebral sulci and ventricular enlargement, along with multifocal ischemic lesions in the right parietal and occipital area. Histopathological findings confirmed widespread neurodegeneration, including severe vacuolation and neuronal necrosis in the precentralis interna and anterior subcallosal regions. Congo Red-positive staining identified amyloid-like deposits in cerebral vessels, and Lewy bodies in the brainstem suggested concurrent vascular and amyloid pathology. This case provides evidence of a potential connection between cerebrovascular pathology and CDS, indicating that ischemic and hemorrhagic lesions may aggravate neurodegeneration and contribute to cognitive and neurological deficits. The coexistence of brain infarction and amyloid deposits in this dog resembles pathological processes observed in human conditions such as Alzheimer’s disease and vascular dementia, highlighting the multifactorial nature of CDS. Advanced neuroimaging and histopathological analysis were critical in diagnosing and understanding this complex interaction. Further research is needed to clarify the mechanisms linking neurodegeneration and cerebrovascular disease in aging dogs.
... This is a limitation of our retrospective study. Of note is that cognitive decline, as described in other animal species [22], has not been reported in cattle. Since these animals demonstrated gait abnormalities, brainstem or spinal cord seem to be more involved than hippocampal or frontal cortex, the two areas implicated in cognitive impairment. ...
Amyloid-β (Aβ) deposits are seen in aged individuals of many mammalian species that possess the same aminoacid sequence as humans. This study describes Aβ deposition in 102 clinically characterized cattle brains from animals aged 0 to 20 years. Extracellular and intracellular Aβ deposition was detected with 4G8 antibody in the cortex, hippocampus, and cerebellum. X-34 staining failed to stain Aβ deposits, indicating the non β-pleated nature of these deposits. Western blot analysis and surface-enhanced laser desorption/ionization time-of-flight (SELDI-TOF) mass spectrometry revealed in Tris, Triton, and formic acid fractions the presence of different Aβ peptides, characterized mainly by C-terminally truncated forms. Exploration of the genetic variability of APOE, PSEN1, and PSEN2 genes involved in Alzheimer’s disease pathogenesis revealed several previously unreported polymorphisms. This study demonstrates certain similarities between Aβ deposition patterns exhibited in cattle brains and those in the human brain in early stages of aging. Furthermore, the identification of the same Aβ peptides reported in humans, but unable to form aggregates, supports the hypothesis that cattle may be protected against amyloid plaque formation.
... 66 S-adenosylmethionine, a molecule formed naturally in the body and found in all living cells, may help in the synthesis of glutathione, an endogenous antioxidant. 67 Silybin, a flavonolignan in milk thistle (Silybum marianum), may conserve glutathione in parenchymal cells. 68 Its bioavailability is enhanced by phosphatidylcholine, a phospholipid that helps to repair cell membranes. ...
In humans and animals, diet is an important aspect of cancer prevention and treatment. Although the research in this area is primarily in humans, studies have demonstrated that dietary therapy may be helpful in preventing or slowing the development of canine cancer and in supporting patients receiving standard care. In an integrative nutritional approach, the conventional therapy consists of specially designed diets that may include whole food items, probiotics, vitamins, fatty acids, and natural polyphenols. These can be custom designed to select for efficacy against particular cancer types and organ protection during toxic cancer treatments. Along with conventional therapy, the addition of traditional Chinese medicine and Chinese food therapy benefits modern clinical treatment with knowledge gleaned over several thousand years by Chinese physicians. For example, the herb Qing Hao (Artemisia) has anti-cancer effects in canine osteosarcoma cell lines and has also been seen to increase survival in small animal cancer patients. Gan Jiang (dry Ginger) has lessened the incidence of emesis in cisplatin-treated dogs. It is possible with consideration of knowledge from human literature, both ancient and modern, that syndrome differentiation in Chinese food therapy combined with conventional nutritional therapy, helps improve quality of life and may lengthen survival in canine patients with cancer.
... Among these declining functions, cognitive dysfunction is particularly impactful [14], leading to cognitive dysfunction syndrome (CDS) in dogs and cats [15]. Canine CDS prevalence increases with age and may begin as early as 6 years old [16], affecting 14-35% of dogs by age 8 [17]. ...
... However, one-third of cats aged 11-14 years show symptoms, with prevalence increasing with age [19]. Clinical signs of CDS in both species are grouped into six categories: Disorientation, altered social Interactions, changes in Sleep-wake cycles, loss of Housetraining, altered Activity levels, and increased Anxiety; defining "DIS-HAA" approach [15]. ...
... For instance, polyphenols from grape and blueberry extracts (QS: 18) did not significantly improve memory in dogs after 75 days [52]. Similarly, Snigdha et al. (QS: 15) found no significant effects of a fruit and vegetable and antioxidant vitamin-enriched diet on learning, memory, executive, or visuospatial functions in beagle dogs over 3 years [38]. However, combinations of the same fruits and vegetables with antioxidant vitamins, LA, and L-carnitine were effective in two trials [46,53]. ...
With advancements in veterinary care and the growing recognition of pets as integral member of the family, the lifespans of dogs and cats have significantly increased, leading to a higher prevalence of age-related conditions, including cognitive dysfunction syndrome (CDS). CDS adversely impacts pets’ quality of life and presents emotional and practical challenges for owners. Given its similarities to Alzheimer’s disease in humans, CDS has gained attention as a target for nutrition-based interventions aimed at preserving cognitive function. This systematic review evaluates the efficacy of enriched diets and nutraceuticals in improving cognition in aging companion animals. A literature search was conducted using PubMed, CAB Abstracts, Web of Science, and Dimensions to identify clinical trials published in English that investigated the effects of enriched diets or nutraceuticals on cognitive functions in aged cats or dogs. Study quality was assessed using a modified CAMARADES checklist. A total of 30 studies (27 canine and 2 feline trials) published between 2002 and 2023 were reviewed. Studies on enriched diets generally demonstrated higher methodological quality compared to those on supplements. Omega-3 fatty acids showed cognitive benefits in aging pets, especially at higher doses, while antioxidants from plant extracts and products and vitamins E and C alone were less effective but remain essential for stabilizing omega-3 fatty acids. Other supplements, including S-adenosyl methionine, medium-chain triglycerides, homotaurine, and apoaequorin, also showed promise. However, future studies must standardize protocols, include robust control groups, and utilize both objective tasks and subjective questionnaires to strengthen conclusions.
... Different cognitive functions, such as attention, suffer changes with aging (Chapagain et al., 2017;Wallis et al., 2014), that in turn impact the ability of dogs to engage in social interactions. Cognitive dysfunction syndrome (CDS) is a neurodegenerative disorder affecting aged dogs that includes alterations in social interactions among its classic clinical signs (Landsberg et al., 2012). These changes in social interactions comprise decreased interest in petting, avoiding contact, decreased greeting behaviour and altered relationships with people and other pets (e.g., being less sociable or becoming aggressive) (Landsberg et al., 2012). ...
... Cognitive dysfunction syndrome (CDS) is a neurodegenerative disorder affecting aged dogs that includes alterations in social interactions among its classic clinical signs (Landsberg et al., 2012). These changes in social interactions comprise decreased interest in petting, avoiding contact, decreased greeting behaviour and altered relationships with people and other pets (e.g., being less sociable or becoming aggressive) (Landsberg et al., 2012). Research on the effect of age and severity of CDS on dogs' social responsiveness found that young dogs (≤ 4 years) are more responsive to social stimuli and isolation than aged dogs (≥ 9 years), as is the case for unimpaired aged dogs compared to dogs with CDS (Rosado et al., 2012a(Rosado et al., , 2012bSiwak et al., 2001). ...
... In contrast, however, most CKCS (18/27) developed signs consistent with cognitive dysfunction. 15 Overall, dogs with behavioral changes were generally older (median age, 145 months) and had experienced the myoclonic episodes for longer (median, 25 months) than those without behavioral changes (median age, 129.5 months; median duration, 18.5 months). Although it cannot be excluded that some behavioral changes may have been related to concurrent age-related health problems such as undiagnosed orthopedic conditions, this finding lends support to the possibility of an underlying neurodegenerative disorder involving cognitive decline alongside progressive myoclonus. ...
Background
Myoclonus has been described in aging Cavalier King Charles Spaniels (CKCS), but the natural course of the disease and response to treatment have not been described.
Objectives
Report the clinical features and course of myoclonus in CKCS.
Animals
Twenty‐seven caregivers provided questionnaire responses at a median of 24 months after the onset of myoclonus in their CKCS. Fifteen caregivers completed a second follow‐up questionnaire at a median of 17 months after submission of the first questionnaire.
Methods
The caregivers of affected CKCS were invited to provide video footage for review. Owners of CKCS with videos demonstrating myoclonus then completed the online questionnaire for further evaluation. A second shortened questionnaire was sent to participants at least 6 months after completion of the first.
Results
Most CKCS displayed spontaneous myoclonus affecting predominantly the head (25/27). Overall, the majority had episodes that increased in frequency (20/27) and severity (17/27). Eighteen dogs had developed changes in behavior since the onset of myoclonus. These dogs were typically older and had experienced myoclonic episodes for longer than dogs without behavioral changes. Generalized epileptic seizures were reported in 4/27 dogs. Ten dogs received medical treatment. Eight were prescribed levetiracetam; all had an initial decrease in episode frequency, but a subsequent increase in both frequency and severity of episodes was common.
Conclusions and Clinical Importance
Myoclonus in CKCS tends to progress in frequency and severity regardless of treatment. Progressive behavioral changes suggestive of cognitive decline are common. These findings support the possibility of an underlying neurodegenerative process.
... Modern human and animal medicine has greatly lengthened lifespans with a staggering increase in reported cognitive issues and dementia in people and cats alike. There is an emerging consensus within veterinary medicine on the need to understand senile dementia in our pet population (7)(8)(9)(10)(11). fCDS is currently a diagnosis of exclusion and like human counterparts; there are limited treatment options. ...
... It is not usual for owned cats to live well beyond 16 years, while feral cats struggle to <5 years. With this increase in life expectancy comes a staggering increase in the incidence of feline cognitive dysfunction (fCDS) (11,14,15,(97)(98)(99). Extrapolating from human studies of aging and neuroinflammation, cats are expected to display similar increasing markers of neuroinflammation (100), but direct studies are lacking. ...
Many neurodegenerative diseases (NDD) appear to share commonality of origin, chronic ER stress. The endoplasmic reticulum (ER) is a dynamic organelle, functioning as a major site of protein synthesis and protein posttranslational modifications, required for proper folding. ER stress can occur because of external stimuli, such as oxidative stress or neuroinflammatory cytokines, creating the ER luminal environment permissive for the accumulation of aggregated and misfolded proteins. Unresolvable ER stress upregulates a highly conserved pathway, the unfolded protein response (UPR). Maladaptive chronic activation of UPR components leads to apoptotic neuronal death. In addition to other factors, physiological responses to stressors are emerging as a significant risk factor in the etiology and pathogenesis of NDD. Owned cats share a common environment with people, being exposed to many of the same stressors as people and additional pressures due to their “quasi” domesticated status. Feline Cognitive Dysfunction Syndrome (fCDS) presents many of the same disease hallmarks as human NDD. The prevalence of fCDS is rapidly increasing as more people welcome cats as companions. Barely recognized 20 years ago, veterinarians and scientists are in infancy stages in understanding what is a very complex disease. This review will describe how cats may represent an unexplored animal mimetic phenotype for human NDD with stressors as potential triggering mechanisms. We will consider how multiple variations of stressful events over the short-life span of a cat could affect neuronal loss or glial dysfunction and ultimately tip the balance towards dementia.
... Canine cognitive dysfunction (CCD) is a progressive neurodegenerative disorder of senior dogs that is considered a naturally occurring model of human Alzheimer's disease (AD) (Landsberg et al., 2012;Chapagain et al., 2018;Dewey et al., 2019). Numerous pathophysiologic processes have been implicated in the onset and progression of AD/CCD. ...
... These include damage to brain vasculature, neuronal mitochondrial dysfunction, toxic β-amyloid protein accumulation around neurons and blood vessels, and oxidative/ inflammatory brain injury. Progressive loss of dendrites, synapses, and neurons (especially in the cerebral cortex and hippocampus) ensues over time because of these damaging events, ultimately culminating in cognitive decline (Landsberg et al., 2012;Chapagain et al., 2018;Dewey et al., 2019;Dewey et al., 2020;Ailioaie et al., 2023). Photobiomodulation (PBMT) or laser therapy entails the delivery of photons of light energy in the red to near-infrared wavelength range (approximately 600 to 1,200 nm) to tissues, to induce a positive biological response. ...
... Further investigation into the effectiveness of tPBMT for CCD would likely benefit from the use of a control group (e.g., sham laser device) and more objective and non-biased methods of measuring cognitive function/ dysfunction. Such objective methods include delayed nonmatching to positioning memory tasks, attention tasks, food-searching tasks, and problem-solving tasks (Landsberg et al., 2012;Gonzalez-Martinez et al., 2013;Chapagain et al., 2018). Considering the progressive nature of CCD, future investigation into tPBMT for this disorder should ideally involve longer follow-up evaluation periods than presented in this study. ...
Background
Canine cognitive dysfunction (CCD) is considered the canine version of human Alzheimer’s disease (AD). As with AD, CCD is a multifactorial and progressive neurodegenerative disorder for which effective treatment options are continuously being sought. Transcranial photobiomodulation (tPBMT) or transcranial laser therapy has shown promise as a treatment for cognitive impairment in rodent AD investigations and several human AD clinical trials.
Aim
The purpose of this prospective case series was to evaluate the effect of tPBMT on cognitive scores when applied to senior dogs with CCD over a 60-day period.
Methods
Five senior (>9-year-old) dogs with moderate (16–33) to severe (>33) cognitive scores were enrolled. Owners were instructed on the use of a Class IM laser device and administered a specific dose of laser energy transcranially to both sides of the patient’s head, three times per week for one month and two times per week for a second month. No additional therapeutic measures aimed at enhancing cognitive ability were permitted during the 60-day evaluation time. Baseline cognitive scores were compared with scores obtained at 30- and 60-days post-treatment.
Results
Cognitive scores showed improvement in 4/5 dogs at 30 days (27.6% reduction) and all dogs at 60 days (43.4% reduction). There were no adverse effects attributable to tPBMT.
Conclusion
Results of our small case series suggest that tPBMT may improve cognitive scores in dogs with moderate to severe CCD by 30 days of application and the improvement is sustained at 60 days. Further studies are needed to ascertain optimal tPBMT protocols for CCD.
... Canine cognitive dysfunction (CCD) is a highly prevalent neurodegenerative disease among the elderly dog population (1)(2)(3). Metabolic changes in the aging brain, such as glucose hypometabolism and mitochondrial dysfunction, (4)(5)(6)(7), and neuropathological findings, like the accumulation of ß42-amyloid plaques (8)(9)(10)(11)(12)(13), and cerebral atrophy (14) may be associated with cognitive decline leading to typical clinical signs that can be classified into different cognitive domains under the DISHA-A acronym: Disorientation, altered interaction, changes in sleep-wake-cycles, house-soiling, altered activity and anxiety (15,16). ...
... Even though these behavioral changes can negatively impact the dog's quality of life (8) and caring for an affected dog is perceived as a burden by their owners (17), CCD is an underdiagnosed condition (1)(2)(3)18). While research studies reveal a prevalence ranging from 14.2 to 68%, depending on the age group and study (1)(2)(3)18), veterinary surgeons might not make the diagnosis in first opinion practice. ...
... Screening questionnaires are helpful to assess patients' behavior and cognitive function and many different owner questionnaires have been designed to help diagnose CCD (8,11,(22)(23)(24)(25)(26)(27). They are currently the most important diagnostic tools (28) and have been shown to detect cognitive impairment accurately, especially in cases of severe impairment (28) and when regularly repeated. ...
Background
Canine cognitive dysfunction (CCD) is a common, yet underdiagnosed neurodegenerative disease affecting older dogs. Treatment is most effective when started early, so identifying mild cognitive decline in the earlier stages of the disease is considered important.
Hypothesis/objective
To compare the results of three different standard screening questionnaires [Canine Dementia Scale (CADES), Canine Cognitive Assessment Scale (CCAS), and Canine Cognitive Dysfunction Rating Scale (CCDR)] for CCD diagnosis. Trainability, pain sensitivity, and fear were additionally assessed with the Canine Behavioral Assessment and Research Questionnaire (C-BARQ) in order to evaluate associations between the three dementia scales and behavior.
Methods
An online survey containing all the mentioned questionnaires was designed for and distributed among owners of elderly dogs.
Results
Data from 597 dogs were analyzed. Overall, the scores of the three CCD questionnaires correlated well with each other, especially those of the CADES and CCAS. The CADES was more sensitive in identifying dogs with already mild to moderate cognitive impairment, while the others classified them as still undergoing normal aging. CCD scores increased for all questionnaires with age with spatial orientation being a key feature in CCD development. Trainability assessed with the C-BARQ decreased significantly with severity of CCD signs, while pain sensitivity increased. Fear and anxiety was pronounced in animals with mild but not with severe CCD. These associations based on the C-BARQ were more clearly observable in relation to CADES and CCDR than CCAS.
Conclusion/clinical relevance
The choice of screening questionnaire impacts the evaluation of cognitive status and severity of CCD. Thresholds for severity classification differ significantly and may have an impact on reliable assessment. Further longitudinal studies are required to determine which of the questionnaires investigated in this study is best suited for early detection of CCD.
... /fvets. . (249,(251)(252)(253). Osteoarthritis is also significantly linked with age and cellular senescence (193,196). ...
Cellular senescence, a condition where cells undergo arrest and can assume an inflammatory phenotype, has been associated with initiation and perpetuation of inflammation driving multiple disease processes in rodent models and humans. Senescent cells secrete inflammatory cytokines, proteins, and matrix metalloproteinases, termed the senescence associated secretory phenotype (SASP), which accelerates the aging processes. In preclinical models, drug interventions termed “senotherapeutics” selectively clear senescent cells and represent a promising strategy to prevent or treat multiple age-related conditions in humans and veterinary species. In this review, we summarize the current available literature describing in vitro evidence for senotheraputic activity, preclinical models of disease, ongoing human clinical trials, and potential clinical applications in veterinary medicine. These promising data to date provide further justification for future studies identifying the most active senotherapeutic combinations, dosages, and routes of administration for use in veterinary medicine.
