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Information gain and admissions as a function of culpability and interrogation approach.
Source publication
Substantial research has assessed interrogations seeking to obtain a criminal confession, and consequently much has been learned regarding the potential problems with confession evidence. However, an increasing focus on counter-terrorism, and therefore intelligence interrogations, reveals an obvious gap in the literature. Intelligence interrogation...
Context in source publication
Similar publications
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Preventing the growth of political views justifying violence is central to global strategies for countering terrorism. In Western democracies, targeting resources on local ''hot spots'' of low confidence in the police is essential for making these strategies evidence based. This research explores the relationship between two kinds of evidence for t...
Citations
... or help, most people probably would have done the same thing," p.3) was considered accusatorial. Results indicated no differences in the rate of true confessions; however, the persuasionbased approach elicited a significantly higher number of false confessions. No innocent participants in the information-gathering interrogation condition confessed.Evans et al. (2013) This study aimed to develop a paradigm based on the cheating paradigm that would allow for gathering empirical Description of eligible studies. ...
Background
False confessions are often the product of an interrogation process, and the method by which an interrogation is conducted likely affects both the rate of truthful confessions and false confessions. An optimal interrogation method will maximize the former and minimize the latter.
Objectives
The current study was a partial update and extension of Meissner and colleagues' (2012) prior Campbell systematic review titled Interview and Interrogation Methods and their Effects on True and False Confessions. Our objective was to assess the effects of interrogation approach on the rates of true and false confessions for criminal (mock) suspects.
Search Methods
PsycINFO, Criminal Justice Abstracts, and 15 other databases were searched starting October 20, 2022, with the final search conducted on May 23, 2023; together with reference checking, citation searching, and contact with authors to identify additional studies.
Selection Criteria
All eligible studies experimentally manipulated interrogation approach (i.e., accusatorial, information‐gathering, or direct questioning) were conducted with mock suspects accused of wrongdoing where ground truth was known, and included information about confession rates.
Data Collection and Analysis
We used standard methodological procedures expected by The Campbell Collaboration for our selection of studies and data collection. However, we developed our own risk of bias items and analyzed our data using network meta‐analysis methods. Data were synthesized via random‐effects network meta‐analysis based on the logged odds ratio.
Main Results
Across the 27 research articles that provided statistical information sufficient to calculate an effect size, 29 individual studies provided a total of 81 effect sizes. Most studies were conducted with college students in the United States. Overall, our risk of bias assessment indicated that authors generally adhered to double‐blind procedures and avoided selective reporting of outcomes. Of note, however, it was often unclear how violations of the randomization process were dealt with.
For true confessions, there were 12 studies estimating the effect between accusatorial and direct questioning, five estimating the effect between information‐gathering and direct questioning, and another five estimating the effect between accusatorial and information‐gathering. Compared to information‐gathering, on average, the accusatorial conditions observed fewer true confessions, although not statistically significant (combined OR = 0.55, 95% CI 0.29, 1.05). The largest effects were between information‐gathering and direct questioning, with the former producing significantly more true confessions on average (combined OR = 2.43, 95% CI 1.29, 4.59). This model showed good consistency between the direct and indirect effects.
For false confessions, there were 20 studies estimating the effect between accusatorial and direct questioning, 4 studies estimating the effect between information‐gathering and direct questioning, and 7 estimating the effect between accusatorial and information‐gathering. On average, accusatorial conditions yielded more false confessions than direct questioning (combined OR = 3.03, 95% CI 1.83, 5.02) or information‐gathering (combined OR = 4.41, 95% CI 1.77, 10.97), both of which are statistically significant. In contrast, direct questioning and information‐gathering had roughly similar rates of false confessions with nonsignificant and small effects that slightly favored information‐gathering (combined OR = 0.69, 95% CI 0.27, 1.78). This model showed good consistency between the direct and indirect effects.
For true confessions under a six‐node model, most of the direct, indirect, and combined network estimated mean odds ratios were not statistically significant. The only significant effects were for (1) information‐gathering versus direct questioning, with the former resulting in more true confessions (combined OR = 2.57, 95% CI 1.38, 4.78); and (2) accusatorial‐evidence ploy versus information‐gathering with the former resulting in fewer true confessions (combined OR = 0.37, 95% CI 0.16, 0.84).
For false confessions under a six‐node model, we found significant effects for (1) accusatorial‐evidence ploys versus direct questioning, with the former resulting in more false confessions (combined OR = 2.98, 95% CI 1.59, 5.59); (2) accusatorial‐evidence ploys versus information‐gathering, with the former resulting in more false confessions (combined OR = 4.47, 95% CI 1.46, 13.68); (3) accusatorial‐other versus direct questioning, with the former resulting in more false confessions (combined OR = 3.12, 95% CI 1.37, 7.10); (4) accusatorial‐other versus information‐gathering, with the former resulting in more false confessions (combined OR = 4.67, 95% CI 1.61, 13.55); and (5) information‐gathering versus minimization, with the latter resulting in more false confessions (combined OR = 0.25, 95% CI = 0.08, 0.83). No other combined effects were significant. This model should be interpreted cautiously, however, as the Q statistics raised concerns regarding model consistency.
Authors' Conclusions
Overall, results support calls for reforming policies related to interviewing and interrogation practices to prohibit the use of accusatorial approaches and require the adoption of approaches that are science‐based.
... It has directed its attention toward enhancing the acquisition of information, notably within the context of criminal investigations (for a review see, Wells et al., 2006). Early studies focused mainly on the evaluation of interrogation techniques Meissner et al., 2014;Redlich et al., 2014;Russano et al., 2014), while more recent studies have focused on suggesting guidelines for gathering more information during an interrogation (Evans et al., 2013;Evans et al., 2010;May & Granhag, 2016;Oleszkiewicz et al., 2014). In this way, researchers have been able to develop complete interview protocols, such as the Cognitive Interview (for a literature review see Memon et al., 2010), or the NICHD for children (for a review see Benia et al., 2015;La Rooy et al., 2015), as well as specific instructions that respond to specific problems encountered by police officers. ...
When tasked with recalling a heard conversation, most individuals are unable to remember specific details. In this study, we tested the effect of Verbatim Recall Instruction (VRI) at recall. Drawing on fuzzy-trace theory, we hypothesised that the use of VRI would lead earwitnesses to use their verbatim mnesic trace to produce a more detailed recall. We compared the quantity and the quality of 42 recalls from participants who had received the VRI or the Free Recall Instruction (FRI). We analysed the level of detail of participants’ recall along a fuzzy to verbatim continuum. Results showed that participants having received a VRI recalled information that was more correct and closer to the original phrasing. However, differences in procedure make the VRI difficult to compare with other studies. Methodological differences are accordingly discussed. Findings suggest that VRI encourages the recollection of verbatim traces, in turn benefiting the recall of detailed elements of a conversation. These findings support fuzzy-trace theory.
... We designed a general knowledge survey (using difficult trivia-style questions) to provide a context in which participants could cheat (similar to Evans et al., 2013). We piloted the survey with PhD students at [anonymised institution] (N = 12) to gauge question difficulty, and ensure that a participant would be likely to accept the offer to cheat by a fellow quiz completer. ...
Purpose
In their study of reciprocity in investigative interviews, Matsumoto and Hwang (2018) found that offering interviewees water prior to the interview enhanced observer-rated rapport and positively affected information provision. This paper aims to examine whether tailoring the item towards an interviewee’s needs would further enhance information provision. This paper hypothesised that interviewees given a relevant item prior to the interview would disclose more information than interviewees given an irrelevant item or no item.
Design/methodology/approach
Participants (n = 85) ate pretzels to induce thirst, engaged in a cheating task with a confederate and were interviewed about their actions after receiving either no item, an irrelevant item to their induced thirst (pen and paper) or a relevant item (water).
Findings
This paper found that receiving a relevant item had a significant impact on information provision, with participants who received water providing the most details, and significantly more than participants that received no item.
Research limitations/implications
The findings have implications for obtaining information during investigative interviews and demonstrate a need for research on the nuances of social reciprocity in investigative interviewing.
Practical implications
The findings have implications for obtaining information during investigative interviews and demonstrate a need for research on the nuances of social reciprocity in investigative interviewing.
Originality/value
To the best of the authors’ knowledge, this study is the first to experimentally test the effect of different item types upon information provision in investigative interviews.
... The expected negative relationship with a challenging posture was not found in this study, although previous research suggests that an accusatory approach reduces the willingness to provide explanations (Evans et al., 2013;Vrij et al., 2017). However, the analyses across episodes demonstrate that a more challenging posture of the officer results in less general willingness to explain in subsequent episodes. ...
High-status financial fraudsters can inflict significant financial and social damage on society. This study aims to provide insight into the dynamics during investigative interviews with such suspects. To this end, 409 half-hour episodes of audio-recorded investigative interviews with 28 high-status suspects were analysed. Officers' interview techniques are classified in four categories (rapport building ; disclosure of potential evidence; adopting a challenging posture; authoritative signalling). Suspects' statements are classified into three categories (general disclosure; providing alternative explanations; uncertain statement behaviour). The dynamic relations between interviewers' questions and suspects' statements are studied, both within and across half-hour episodes. K E Y W O R D S fraud, high-status suspects, information disclosure, interrogation, investigative interviewing, white-collar criminals
... The research reviewed thus far has fallen into broad, dichotomous categories such as minimisation versus maximisation or accusatorial versus information gathering (Evans et al., 2013;Meissner et al., 2014) or the analysis of specific techniques (Gudjonsson & Sigurdsson, 1999;Leo, 1996;Soukara et al., 2009). Kelly et al. (2013) set out to bridge the gap between broad categories and specific techniques by creating a taxonomy of interrogation methods that could aid in the standardisation of research. ...
Research on investigative interviewing tends to focus on a limited number of interview methods employed during an interview in pursuit of a singular outcome. The present study took an expansive view of the techniques used, questions asked and interviewer disposition, and related them to three interview goals—overcoming resistance, gathering information and eliciting confessions. Drawing upon theory and prior research, we hypothesised that certain methods would be more relevant to certain outcomes than others, such as question types would have a greater effect on information gain than techniques or interviewer disposition. Using a sample of 43 suspect interviews provided by the Las Vegas Metropolitan Police Department (LVMPD), we found partial support for our hypotheses. Rapport‐based approaches and a respectful disposition reduced resistance, open‐ended questions elicited more information than closed‐ended ones and in the final model, only open‐ended questions increased confessions. Implications for research and practice are discussed.
... To meet the challenge of creating a science-based model of interviewing and interrogation, researchers have conducted studies on a broad array of topics using a wide range of methodologies. For example, scholars have used experimental paradigms to evaluate interrogation techniques (e.g., Brimbal et al., 2019;Dianiska et al., 2021;Evans et al., 2013;Granhag et al., 2020), organized interrogation techniques into taxonomies (e.g., Kelly et al., 2013;Meissner et al., 2023), surveyed and interviewed practitioners about their experiences (e.g., Goodman-Delahunty & Howes, 2016; Redlich et al., 2014;Russano et al., 2014), and conducted observational studies involving real world interviews (e.g., Alison et al., 2013;Alison et al., 2014;. ...
... Geiselman (2012) has offered a version of the CI "for Suspects" and others (see Sooniste et al., 2015) have demonstrated that the protocol promotes an important corollary benefit by facilitating the discrimination of truth and deception. Further, recent experimental research suggests that inclusion of CI components can facilitate the elicitation of guilty knowledge and key admissions in an interrogative context (Evans et al., 2013;Dianiska et al., 2019) and aid the recollection of sources in a human intelligence context (Leins et al., 2014). ...
... The use of science-based approaches directly led to increased cooperation and information disclosure, and indirectly, increased confession rates (although the amount of variance explained in confession rates was quite small). Our results are also consistent with previous research linking the ORBIT approach with increased cooperation and information disclosure (e.g., Alison et al., 2013Alison et al., , 2014 and with cognitive interview approaches leading to greater information gain during interrogations and related contexts (e.g., Evans et al., 2013;Leins et al., 2014). ...
As accusatorial approaches to interrogation in the United States have increasingly come under scrutiny, interest in science-based methods of interviewing and interrogation has risen. The purpose of the current study was to assess the effectiveness of a 5-day science-based interrogation course delivered by the High-Value Detainee Interrogation Group to U.S. federal, local, and state law enforcement investigators. Core aspects of the training included the use of productive questions, developing interrogator–suspect rapport, and conducting a cognitive interview. Ninety investigators who participated in the training submitted pre- and posttraining recordings of real-world suspect interviews. As hypothesized, investigators increased their use of science-based approaches after training and decreased their use of unproductive questions. Training did not influence how frequently they employed customary accusatorial techniques. Using a path model analysis, we also explored the relationships between use of science-based techniques and accusatorial approaches on the key outcome variables of cooperation, information disclosure by the suspect, and confession. We found positive indirect effects of training on cooperation and information disclosure via the use of science-based approaches. Moreover, science-based approaches were positively associated with increased cooperation and information disclosure and, indirectly, confession rates. In contrast, accusatorial approaches were associated with increased use of suspect counter-interrogation strategies and decreased cooperation and information gain. Implications for future training programs are discussed.
... Deception or psychological manipulation of the interviewee is thus inconsistent with this approach. There is overwhelming evidence that information-gathering approaches reduce the likelihood of false confessions, increase the elicitation of accurate information, and can even facilitate cooperation by interviewees who are initially resistant (Evans et al., 2013;Meissner et al., 2014). Given the recent adoption of an information gathering approach in Japan, we will focus on research relating to this approach (but see Vrij et al., 2017 andMeissner et al., 2014 for more information on the accusatorial approach and its risks to obtaining justice). ...
Legal psychology is field of research which seeks to bring evidence-based practice to the vital work of the criminal justice system. This research is increasingly being conducted and its findings applied around the world. However, worldwide legal systems and their processes can vary greatly. In the current paper, we summarise discussions between legal psychology academics and criminal justice practitioners from Japan. Together, we examine how practices in the Japanese criminal justice system interact with the international evidence base for psychologically-informed ‘best practice’ approaches. Our discussion targets areas of popular study in legal psychology, focusing on concealed crime knowledge detection, line up identification procedures, and investigative interviewing of witnesses, suspects, and victims. Each section features a description of current Japanese practice, followed by a review of the current state of the relevant academic legal psychological literature. We then connect this practice and research synergy to a reflection with suggestions for future research. Taken together, our paper acts as a conduit to incentivise more research and practice collaboration for Japanese and non-Japanese audiences and presents opportunities for collective international legal psychology.
... In contrast, information-gathering approaches, initially developed in the United Kingdom and used in a variety of countries, prioritize building rapport and utilizing humane, ethical techniques to enhance cooperation (i.e., willingness to engage with interviewers and aid in investigations) and information disclosure (i.e., the timely disclosure of crime-relevant and truthful information to police; see, generally, Bull & Rachlew, 2020). Compared with accusatorial approaches, information-gathering approaches tend to produce more diagnostic confession outcomes (Meissner et al., 2014) and result in more cooperation and disclosure of crime-relevant information from guilty people (e.g., Evans et al., 2013), leading both scholars and practitioners to advocate for a shift away from accusatorial interrogations. Indeed, an international committee of experts drafted and recently published the "universal protocol" (i.e., worldwide guidance) advocating for non-coercive interviewing methods (Mendez, 2021). ...
... Beyond confessions, these approaches also impact cooperation and disclosure from persons suspected of a crime. Evans et al. (2013) found that information-gathering approaches resulted in more reliable and critical information disclosure, while accusatorial approaches decreased information gain. ...
The techniques used to interrogate individuals suspected of a crime can profoundly impact their decisions to confess, cooperate , or disclose information. Research using different methods suggests that two prevailing interrogation approaches-accu-satorial and information-gathering-differentially impact interrogation outcomes. However, confession, cooperation, and information disclosure are ultimately the suspected person's decision, yet few studies directly examine their perspectives about how interrogation techniques affect their decisions, and none examine a U.S. sample. This study assessed how interrogation strategies characterized by humanity, rapport, confrontation, and dominance/control predicted interrogation outcomes in a sample of 249 individuals incarcerated in two U.S. jails. Respondents who reported experiencing humane strategies were more likely to confess, cooperate completely, and disclose incriminating information. Dominance/control-oriented strategies predicted partial confession (but not cooperation or disclosure), and rapport-based and confrontational techniques did not predict outcomes. Findings highlight humane interrogation strategies as likely the most productive strategies to adopt in criminal interrogations.
... The study used a modified version of a cheating paradigm that involves a high degree of psychological realism. 31 Participants were induced to cheat on an academic test and were later informed that they were suspected of colluding with another participant in academic dishonesty. Participants were then interviewed about the suspected cheating and led to believe that the situation was genuinely a matter of concern (and not a part of the "experiment"). ...
... The PEACE model is a rapport-based information-gathering interview model that was developed in collaboration between academics, police officers and legal professionals (CPTU, 1992a(CPTU, , 1992b and has evolved over nearly 30-years of academic research and practitioner usage (Bull, Valentine, & Williamson, 2009;Clarke & Milne, 2001;Walsh & Bull, 2012). The model is now widely employed by policing, law enforcement and other governmental investigative agencies in many countries (CoP, 2020;Oxburgh, Walsh, & Milne, 2011;Walsh & Bull, 2012;Walsh & Milne, 2008) and has previoulsy been recommended for use with informants (Evans et al., 2013;Nunan et al., 2020aNunan et al., , 2020c. As such, it is a relevant comparator for any new model to be tested against. ...
The covert use of civilian informants leaves law enforcement agencies open to accusations of unethical conduct. The use of a structured interview protocol is a recognised method of promoting ethical interactions between police and public citizens, however, there is no known interview model specifically designed to meet informant handler objectives. The current study adopts a holistic view of the interaction between ‘informant’ and ‘handler’ to develop a bespoke informant interview model (RWITS-US: Review and Research, Welfare, Information, Tasking, Security, Understanding Context, Sharing). This model is compared to the PEACE model of interviewing as part of a novel experimental paradigm using mock-informants (N = 19), measuring levels of motivation, rapport, cooperation and intelligence gain. Results indicate that the RWITS-US model generated significantly greater levels of self-reported rapport without having any detrimental effect on the other measured variables. Whilst the results are encouraging, we suggest that the RWITS-US model should be tested in handler training environments before being recommended for widespread use in the field.
