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![Infill types at different densities (Left to Right: 20%, 40%, 60% and 80%. Top to Bottom: Honeycomb, Concentric, Line, Rectilinear, Hilbert Curve, Archimedean Chords, Octagram Spiral) [6].](profile/Pinar-Demircioglu/publication/340875902/figure/fig1/AS:11431281205070579@1700086083135/nfill-types-at-different-densities-Left-to-Right-20-40-60-and-80-Top-to-Bottom.png)
Infill types at different densities (Left to Right: 20%, 40%, 60% and 80%. Top to Bottom: Honeycomb, Concentric, Line, Rectilinear, Hilbert Curve, Archimedean Chords, Octagram Spiral) [6].
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![Technical specifications of Prusa İ3 3D Printer [12].](profile/Pinar-Demircioglu/publication/340875902/figure/tbl1/AS:11431281205049116@1700086083262/Technical-specifications-of-Prusa-I3-3D-Printer-12_Q320.jpg)
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The aim of this study is to search out the effects of the infill type and density on hardness of themanufactured components with rapid prototyping technique. Computer Aided Design (CAD) models ofspecimens were prepared using Autodesk Inventor Software. Then the models were exported as STL fileformat for rapid prototyping. Disc shape specimens were...
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... type and density have relationship among object strength, time and material [6]. Infill density can be defined as the filled volume in a part and type is the geometric pattern of the infill (Figure 1) [7]. Bogrekci et al. studied about infill type and density to create a hybrid pattern for 3D printing optimization [8]. ...
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... The corresponding increases for RO 45°and 90°are 7.85% and 7.75%, respectively. At higher ID, more amount of material is fused inside the printed part, leading to greater resistance to indentation and subsequent deformation [45]. Moreover, proper curing of the material is possible at higher ID, which results in better mechanical properties of the 3D-printed PA6 part. ...
This paper presents the experimental assessment of the hardness characteristic of additively manufactured polyamide (PA 6) composite reinforced with carbon micro-fibers. The carbon fiber-reinforced polyamide (CFPA) components were manufactured using the additive manufacturing technique—fused deposition modeling (FDM). The experiments were conducted for testing the hardness of the samples using a Shore-D hardness tester. The novel contributions of the work towards the manufacturing fraternity include selecting a scantly researched material like CFPA, and the elaborative investigation of hardness variation with the alteration of the prime parameters pertaining to FDM. The effect of the print-related parameters, namely, layer height (LH), infill density (ID), and raster orientation (RO) on the hardness of the CFPA component was studied, and the results were analyzed using statistical analysis tool ‘analysis of variance (ANOVA)’. Moreover, a regression model was developed to predict the output response, i.e. hardness for different combinations of the input parameters. Considering an ID of 100% and an RO of 0°, the hardness value of 93.89 at 0.1 mm LH reduced to 88.44 at 0.3 mm LH, depicting a reduction of 5.81%. An increasing trend was observed for hardness with the increase in ID for all the levels of LH and RO. The highest value of hardness (93.89) was achieved at an ID of 100%, with the LH and RO values kept at 0.1 mm and 0°, respectively. The ANOVA suggested that the effect of all three parameters is significant in the study, ID being the most affecting parameter with an effect contribution of 37.88%. The fitness of the adopted model was well justified by the high R-sq value of 0.9618 and significantly low error values in the range of 0.002–0.08.
... A recently published comprehensive review article [54] aimed to demonstrate the improvements in the synthesis and degeneration of PLAbased materials which are profoundly in use globally. In one study, Bögrekci et al. [55] investigated the impact of the density (15-100%) and the infill type (linear, diamond and hexagonal) parameters on the hardness of the 3D-printed materials. ...
Heat transfer capabilities of the heat exchangers require enhancements to save energy and decrease their size. For this purpose, the swirl generators have been widely preferred. However, the swirler inserts have not reached their optimum shape. Thus, this study experimentally and numerically investigates the impact of novel 3D-printed swirler inserts with varying twist angles in the range of 0°–450° on the thermo-hydraulic performance of solar absorber tube heat exchangers under laminar flow (Re = 513–2054) condition. Friction factor, Nusselt number, and performance evaluation criterion (PEC) were used to assess heat exchanger performance, and related correlations are provided. Tangential velocity components were also used to explore fluid flow characteristics in local analysis. Numerical investigation was done by using computational fluid dynamics adopting Finite Volume Method in ANSYS Fluent. Results show that 3D-printed swirlers considerably increase heat transfer compared to plain tube. The swirler with a twist angle of 450° led to the maximum enhancements of nearly 217% in average Nusselt number and around 1630% in friction factor at Reynolds number of 2054. Overall, increasing Reynolds number enhanced Nusselt number. The highest PEC of 1.15 was observed at a Reynolds number of 1031 using the swirler with 150° twist angle. Flow near the swirler has higher tangential velocities, hence contributing to local Nusselt number enhancement up to 453.8% compared to plain tube when swirler with twist angle of 450° utilized. It is anticipated that findings of this study can guide further related research and increase the usage of swirlers in heat exchangers.
... The remaining eight parameters, including wall thickness, infill pattern, travel speed, print acceleration, travel acceleration, retraction distance, retraction speed, and fan speed, were chosen for their potential theoretical impact on heat distribution and bonding quality between printed layers. Wall thickness significantly affects the final mechanical properties of 3D printed parts [35], and infill pattern has a notable impact on Microhardness [17]. Limited research exists on the influence of the other parameters on mechanical properties. ...
... The results showed that lower layer thickness and printing speed maximized flexural and tensile strength. Böğrekci et al. [17] investigated the influences of the infill rate and type on the hardness of FDM 3D printed parts. The results showed that a high infill percentage level produced parts with fewer voids and higher hardness values. ...
Fused deposition modelling (FDM) is a popular additive manufacturing process used for rapid prototyping and the production of complex geometries. Despite its popularity, FDM’s susceptibility to variations in numerous process parameters can significantly impact the quality, design, functionality, and mechanical properties of 3D printed parts. This study explores thirteen FDM process parameters and their influence on the mechanical properties of polylactic acid (PLA) polymer, encompassing surface roughness, warpage, tensile and bending strength, elongation at break, deformation, and microhardness. The optimum parameters were identified alongside key contributors by applying the Taguchi method, signal-to-noise ratios, and analysis of variances (ANOVA). Notably, specific FDM parameters significantly affect the surface profile, with layer thickness contributing 32.65% and fan speed contributing 8.59% to the observed variations. Similarly, warping values show notable influence from nozzle temperature (29.53%), wall thickness (16.74%), layer thickness (16.56%), and retraction distance (12.80%). Tensile strength is primarily determined by wall thickness (31.83%), followed by infill percentage (26.73%) and infill pattern (16.18%). Elongation at break predominantly correlates with wall thickness (44.82%), with a supplementary contribution from nozzle temperature (10.90%). Microhardness lacks a dominant parameter. Bending strength variations primarily arise from layer thickness (38%), wall thickness (37.6%), and infill percentage (9.17%). Deformation tendencies are influenced by layer thickness (19.20%), print speed (11.37%), wall thickness, and fan speed (10.9% each). The optimized dataset of FDM process parameters was then employed in two prediction models: multiple-regression and artificial neural network (ANN). Evaluation based on the correlation coefficient (R²) and root mean squared error (RMSE) indicates that the ANN model outperforms the multiple-regression approach. The results indicate that precise control of FDM parameters, coupled with ANN predictions, facilitates the fabrication of 3D printed parts with the desired mechanical characteristics.
... An investigation on tensile properties using finite element analysis was conducted while varying the infill pattern [24]. Knoop and Vicker's hardness tests were performed on PLA 3D printed parts with different infill patterns and infill percentages, the results showed the highest hardness for the parts built will 100% infill density [25]. The authors in [26] studied the effect of changing infill types and infill densities of 3D printed PLA parts on the printing time and the amount of material used, the authors concluded that if product need maximum tensile properties, it must be 3D printed with 100% infill and, if designer wanted to save time and amount of 3D printed material, and decrease infill density from 100% to 90%, the product of PLA material will have reduced UTS and yield strength for 40%. ...
... Max Test Temp. (°C) Aluminum (≈65%) [26] 55 PEEK [27] 140 TPU [28] 164 ABS [29] 81 PLA3080 [30] 55 ULTEM1010 [31] 213 ULTEM9085 [32] 153 ...
The expansion and low cost of additive manufacturing technologies have led to a revolution in the development of materials used by these technologies. There are several varieties of materials that can be used in additive manufacturing by fused deposition modeling (FDM). However, some of the properties of these materials are unknown or confusing. This article addresses the need to know the thermal conductivity in different filaments that this FDM technology uses, because there are multiple applications for these additive manufacturing products in the field of thermal insulation. For the study of thermal conductivity, the DTC-25 commercial conductivity measurement bench was used, where the tests were carried out on a set of seven different materials with 100% fabrication density—from base materials such as acrylonitrile butadiene styrene (ABS) or polylactic acid (PLA), to materials with high mechanical and thermal resistance such as thermoplastic polyurethane (TPU), polyether ether ketone (PEEK), and high-performance polyetherimide thermoplastic (ULTEM), to materials with metal inclusions (aluminum 6061) that would later be subjected to thermal after-treatments. This study shows how the parts manufactured with aluminum inclusions have a higher thermal conductivity, at 0.40 ± 0.05 W/m·K, compared to other materials with high mechanical and thermal resistance, such as TPU, with a conductivity of 0.26 ± 0.05 W/m·K.
... (°C) Aluminum (≈ 65%) [11] 55 PEEK [12] 140 TPU [13] 164 Figure 3, were manufactured with a FDM printing with a standard diameter of 50 mm, and two different thicknesses, a first thickness of 5 mm and a second of 10 mm. Both diameter and thickness were accurately measured, as can see in Table 2. Different densities and fill patterns were produced using the different materials to get suitable mechanical [18] and thermal capabilities. However, finally, a density of 100% and rectilinear fill pattern with an 45º angle offset was selected as the lowest porosity and the best mechanical behavior of them. ...
This article addresses the need to know the thermal conductivity in different filaments that this FDM technology uses. Because there are multiple applications that these additive manufacturing products play in the field of thermal insulation. For the study of thermal conductivity, the DTC-25 commercial conductivity measurement bench is used, where the tests will be carried out on a set of seven different materials with 100% fabrication density. From base materials such as acrylonitrile butadiene styrene (ABS) or polylactic acid (PLA), materials of high mechanical and thermal resistance, polyether ether ketone (PEEK) and high-performance polyetherimide thermoplastic (ULTEM), to materials with metal inclusions (aluminum 6061) that would later be subjected to thermal aftertreatments. The study shows how the parts manufactured with aluminum inclusion have a higher thermal conductivity, 0.40 ±0.05 W/m·K, compared to another material, such as TPU, of high mechanical and thermal resistance, with a conductivity of 0.26 ±0.05 W/m·K.
... Figure 9a indicates that increasing infill density increases the sum of S/N ratios for hardness, since it yields less air gap between printed layers, leading to The optimum factor-level combination in response to the maximum hardness is based on the "larger-the-better" criterion in the Taguchi DoEs for both dog-bone and cylindrical samples. Figure 9a indicates that increasing infill density increases the sum of S/N ratios for hardness, since it yields less air gap between printed layers, leading to denser materials and better deformation resistance [54]. The addition of HNTs induces more compact and stronger hydrogen bonds between HNT nanofillers and TPU molecular chains. ...
Thermoplastic polyurethane (TPU) belongs to a polyurethane family that possesses an elongation much higher than 300%, despite having low mechanical strength, which can be overcome by incorporating clay-based halloysite nanotubes (HNTs) as additives to manufacture TPU/HNT nanocomposites. This paper focuses on the co-influence of HNT content and 3D printing parameters on the mechanical properties of 3D printed TPU/HNT nanocomposites in terms of tensile properties, hardness, and abrasion resistance via fused deposition modelling (FDM). The optimum factor-level combination for different responses was determined with the aid of robust statistical Taguchi design of experiments (DoEs). Material characterisation was also carried out to evaluate the surface morphology, nanofiller dispersion, chemical structure, thermal stability, and phase behaviour corresponding to the DoE results obtained. It is evidently shown that HNT level and infill density play a significant role in impacting mechanical properties of 3D-printed TPU/HNT nanocomposites.
... Pored gore navedenih osobina, kroz pregled literature vidi se da su analizirane i druge osobine FDM printanih materijala, gdje je u radu [63] analiziran uticaj oblika i gustine ispune na tvrdoću FDM printanih uzoraka od PLA materijala, gdje su rezultati istraživanja pokazali da oblik i gustina ispune utiču na tvrdoću. Uticaj gustine ispune na udarnu žilavost "PLAgraphene" materijala analiziran je u radu [59], i rezultati su pokazali da sa povećanjem gustine ispune udarna žilavost se ne povećava linearno, ali se razlikuje za različite gustine ispune. ...
Predmet doktorske disertacije je teoretsko-eksperimentalno istraživanje uticaja dizajna ispune (eng. infill design) na osobine FDM printanih polimernih materijala sa strukturom ispune. S tim u vezi, jedan od primarnih ciljeva istraživanja je razvoj metodologije ispitivanja s ciljem dobivanja matematskih formulacija (matematskih modela) za procjenu zateznih mehaničkih osobina u zavisnosti od dizajna ispune (oblik, gustina i ugao).
Na osnovu teoretskog istraživanja predstavljen je detaljan pregled dosadašnjih istraživanja na temu uticaja dizajna ispune na osobine FDM printanih polimernih materijala. Dat je pregled materijala za aditivne tehnologije sa fokusom na FDM polimerne materijale. Predstavljeni su fizikalni aspekti pri formiranju FDM printanih polimernih materijala, te su predstavljeni uticajni faktori na osobine istih. Opisani su FDM printani polimerni materijali sa strukturom ispune, te navedene njihove karakteristike. Opisan je način ispitivanja mehaničkih osobina FDM printanih materijala sa i bez strukture ispune, pri čemu su analizirani standardi koji se najčešće koriste pri ispitivanju istih.
U eksperimentalnom dijelu, urađeno je ispitivanje zateznih mehaničkih ispitivanja PLA, Tough PLA, PC i PETG FDM printanih polimernih materijala sa strukturom ispune. Analiziran je uticaj 7 različitih oblika ispune, 4 različite gustine i 4 ugla ispune u odnosu na smjer opterećenja, pri čemu su ukupno analizirana 1344 ispitna uzorka. Prikazani su dijagrami napon-deformacija za svaki materijal prema obliku ispune. Također, rezultati su predstavljeni i uspoređeni kroz histograme, gdje je za svaki oblik ispune prikazan uticaj gustine i ugla ispune na maksimalnu silu 𝐹𝑚 i modul elastičnosti 𝐸. Izvršena je i usporedba mehaničkih osobina samih materijala.
Primjenom dizajna eksperimenta, metodologijom potpunog faktorijalnog dizajna, analiziran je uticaj dizajna ispune na maksimalnu silu 𝐹𝑚 i modul elastičnosti 𝐸 za svaki materijal, te su razvijeni matematski modeli za predviđanje istih. Za ocjenu tačnosti matematskog modela korišteni su koeficijent determinacije 𝑅2 (R-sq), 𝑅2 prilagođeni (R-sq adj) i 𝑅2 predviđeni (R-sq pred). Adekvatnost razvijenih matematskih modela, provjerena je pomoću analize reziduala, gdje je posmatran histogram i grafik normalne vjerovatnoće reziduala. Slaganje eksperimentalnih i modelom predviđenih vrijednosti izvršeno je zaračunavanjem koeficijenta korelacije R. Kako bi se provjerio i procijenio uticaj i značaj faktora (oblik, gustina i ugao ispune), korištena je analiza varijanse (ANOVA). Također, predstavljeni su dijagrami glavnih efekata i interakcija. Primjenom Tukey testa izvršena je analiza višestrukim upoređivanjem srednjih vrijednosti izlaza za sve nivoe faktora. Primjenom 3D dijagrama i dijagrama kontura, grafički je predstavljen zajednički uticaj gustine i ugla ispune na maksimalnu silu 𝐹𝑚 i modul elastičnosti 𝐸. Urađena je i validacija matematskog modela kao i optimizacija maksimalne sile 𝐹𝑚 i modula elastičnosti 𝐸.
Na kraju je urađena tehno-ekonomska analiza primjene strukture ispune kod FDM printanih polimernih materijala. Analiziran je uticaj oblika, gustine i ugla ispune na ukupno vrijeme printanja ispitnog uzorka, količina utrošenog materijala tokom printanja, kao i vrijeme printanja strukture ispune. Zatim je kroz dijagrame predstavljena usporedba izrade proizvoda, u ovom slučaju ispitnog uzorka, sa i bez (100% gustina ispune) primjene strukture ispune. Analizirana je ušteda ukupnog vremena printanja kao i količine potrošenog materijala pri promjeni gustine ispune, kao najutjecajnijeg parametra dizajna ispune na iste.
... The results revealed that higher tensile strength was obtained when specimens were built with flat and long edge part orientation as compared to on short edge orientation with the rectilinear and concentric patterns. Bogrekei et al. [10] studied the effect of infill pattern and density on the hardness property of fusion deposition modeling PLA printed material. The result showed that the specimen with a hexagonal pattern had the maximum hardness for all infill densities due to its better deposition trajectory and interlayer bonding. ...
... [7][8][9][10]. https://doi.org/10.37358/Mat.Plast.1964 Mater. ...
Fused Filament Fabrication (FFF) is the most popular and widely used additive manufacturing process for printing polymer and composite products. Various production factors influenced the strength and stiffness of the part manufactured by 3D printing. A comprehensive experimental analysis was conducted in this study to examine the effect of FFF process parameters (infill density, pattern, and layer thickness) on mechanical properties and failure mechanism. The tensile, flexural, and impact test specimens were printed using ABS and carbon fibre reinforced ABS filaments in accordance with ASTM standards. Furthermore, dynamic properties are studied using dynamic mechanical analysis to estimate the loss factor and glass transition temperature under the impact of temperature and frequency in addition to static properties. Further, the results showed the addition of carbon fiber in ABS increases the mechanical properties. The failure modes are studied using optical microscopy and Scanning Electron Microscopy images and it has been visualized that due to improper layer deposition, poor bonding between the previous layer and low infill density creates a void in the specimen which results in poor mechanical properties. The Dynamic Mechanical Analysis showed that at higher frequency the molecular movement decreases which in turn stabilizes the composite behavior and reduces the loss factor.
... 3B FFF yazıcıda üretilen ürünlerin yüzey pürüzlülüğü ürünün kalitesini ortaya koyan önemli bir veridir [5]. ABS filament kullanılarak yapılan bir çalışmada üretim sırasında seçilen dolgu tipinin ürünün sertliğine doğrudan etki ettiği ortaya koyulmuştur [6]. 3B FFF yazıcılar ile yapılan üretimlerde filamentin ergitilme sıcaklığı yüzey kalitesini önemli ölçüde etkilemektedir. ...
Malzeme ekstrüzyonu yöntemi; tel halindeki termoplastik hammaddenin hareketli bir nozul yardımıyla baskı tablası üzerinde istenen bölgeye dökülerek üretim yapılan bir yöntemdir. Düşük maliyeti ile malzeme ekstrüzyonu en sık kullanılan eklemeli imalat yöntemidir. Bununla birlikte üretim sırasında en çok sorun yaşanan yöntemlerden biridir. 3B yazıcının sahip olduğu donanım, üretim sırasında kullanılan yazılımlar ve üretim parametreleri nedeniyle farklı üretim sorunları ile karşılaşılabilmektedir. Bu çalışmada malzeme ekstrüzyonu yöntemini kullanan 3B (3 Boyutlu) yazıcılarda karşılaşılan sorunlar değerlendirilmiştir. Tespit edilen sorunlar malzeme ekstrüzyonu yöntemini kullanan yazıcıların tümü için geçerlidir. Bu tür üretim problemleri düşük maliyetli yazıcılarda daha sık karşılaşılmakla beraber yüksek maliyetli profesyonel yazıcılarda da önemli bir sorun olarak karşımıza çıkmaktadır. 3B yazıcılarda üretim sırasında sık karşılaşılan 21 temel üretim sorunu tespit edilmiştir. Bu sorunlar 3B yazıcılarla yapılan üretim sırasında ürünü fonksiyonel olarak kullanılamaz hale getiren veya üretimi engelleyen sorunlardır. Çalışmada tespit edilen her bir üretim sorunu detaylı görseller ile sunulmuş, sorunun sebeplerine dair bilgiler verilmiş ve bazı çözüm önerileri tavsiye edilmiştir.
