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A longitudinal epidemiological and entomological study was carried out in Ocamo, Upper Orinoco River, between January 1994 and February 1995 to understand the dynamics of malaria transmission in this area. Malaria transmission occurs throughout the year with a peak in June at the beginning of the rainy season. The Annual Parasite Index was 1,279 pe...
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... area -The study was carried out over a period of 14 months (January 1994-February 1995 in the lo- cation of Ocamo (02º50'N, 65º14'W) in the state of Amazonas, Southern Venezuela (Fig. 1). Ocamo com- prises nine villages or "shabonos" (Santa Maria de los Guaicas-Ocamo, Boca Padamo, Dayaritheri, Lechoza, Kashora, Tumba, Shashana, Yohope, and San Benito) lo- cated along the Orinoco and Ocamo rivers, the distance between villages being about 2 km. The villages are about 116 m above sea level. The mean annual temperature ...
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Background:
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Citations
... Anopheles darlingi has a wide range of distribution in the Neotropics, from southern Mexico to northern Argentina (13) and is the most efficient vector of malaria parasites in South America in terms of high anthropophilic habits and its capacity to transmit all three parasite species P. falciparum, P. vivax and P. malariae. (3,64,65,66) The females of this species may oviposit in a wide variety of natural and man-made water bodies, permanent or temporal. (4,13) However, its main larval sites are usually permanent, large and deep-water bodies like rivers, streams, lakes and lagoons. ...
... Several studies have demonstrated the influence of climate on the abundance of Anopheles mosquitoes and on malaria in Brazil, (119,120,121,122) and around the world. (65,123,124,125,126) Studies in Brazil, (120,121,122) Peru (127) and Venezuela (65) confirm the influence of river level on the incidence of malaria, with peaks after river floods. Most studies on climate, mosquito abundance and malaria incidence focused on adult females, since no correspondence was found between the abundance of adults and immature stages, probably because each life stage has different factors that influence mortality besides the duration of the aquatic cycle. ...
... Several studies have demonstrated the influence of climate on the abundance of Anopheles mosquitoes and on malaria in Brazil, (119,120,121,122) and around the world. (65,123,124,125,126) Studies in Brazil, (120,121,122) Peru (127) and Venezuela (65) confirm the influence of river level on the incidence of malaria, with peaks after river floods. Most studies on climate, mosquito abundance and malaria incidence focused on adult females, since no correspondence was found between the abundance of adults and immature stages, probably because each life stage has different factors that influence mortality besides the duration of the aquatic cycle. ...
BACKGROUND
Anopheles darlingi is the most efficient vector of malaria parasites in the Neotropics. Nevertheless, the specificities of its larval habitats are still poorly known.
OBJECTIVES
Characterize permanent larval habitats, and population dynamics of An. darlingi and other potential vectors in relation to climate, physicochemical variables, insect fauna and malaria cases.
METHODS
A 14-month longitudinal study was conducted in Porto Velho, Rondônia, western Brazilian Amazon. Monthly, 21 permanent water bodies were sampled. Immature anophelines and associated fauna were collected, physicochemical characteristics, and climate variables were recorded and analyzed.
FINDINGS
Five types of habitats were identified: lagoon, stream, stream combined with lagoon, stream combined with dam, and fishpond. A total of 60,927 anophelines were collected. The most abundant species in all habitats were Anopheles braziliensis and An. darlingi. The highest density was found in the lagoon, while streams had the highest species richness. Abundance was higher during the transition period wet-dry season. There was a lag of respectively four and five months between the peak of rainfall and the Madeira River level and the highest abundance of An. darlingi larvae, which were positively correlated with habitats partially shaded, pH close to neutrality, increase dissolved oxygen and sulphates.
MAIN CONCLUSIONS
The present study provides data on key factors defining permanent larval habitats for the surveillance of An. darlingi and other potential vectors as well as a log-linear Negative Binomial model based on immature mosquito abundance and climate variables to predict the increase in the number of malaria cases.
... Infection Rates (IR) of Plasmodium spp. ranging from 0.76 to 4.0% have been reported, whereas the entomological inoculation rates (EIR) vary between 2.21 and 70.1 infective bites per person/year (Abou et al. 2017, Magris et al. 2007, Moreno et al. 2009, Rubio-Palis et al. 2013. Anopheles darlingi is a colonizing species associated with wooded riverine habitats and mod-i��ed (often deforested) habitat patches whose hematophagous behaviour is usually variable and opportunistic; however, its behaviour can be classi��ed as mainly exophilic and exophagic . ...
In recent decades, Venezuela has faced a severe economic and social crisis, precipitated by political instability, which in turn has particularly afected public health provision. Here, we assess how Venezuela’s health crisis has impacted mosquito-borne infectious diseases (MBID s), placing Venezuela as the hotspot of malaria in the region and one of the countries currently reporting yellow fever outbreaks in the Americas. We describe the reshaping
of the MBID epidemiological landscape in the midst of a changing environmental setting, highlighting the main knowledge gaps. The rise of MBID in Venezuela has the potential to
severely undermine regional disease elimination eforts. Therefore, national, and regional measures must be taken to address these worsening epidemics and prevent their spread
beyond country borders.
... En el estado Amazonas, donde la abundancia de An. darlingi es muy alta (Magris et al., 2007), se observó que en comparación con cebos humanos la trampa CDC resultó más eficiente (62%) que la trampa UV (45%) (Rubio-Palis et al., 1999). Cabe destacar que tanto la trampa CDC como la trampa UV resultaron ineficientes para capturar anofelinos en el municipio Sucre del estado Bolívar cuando la abundancia es baja (Rubio-Palis et al., 2010). ...
... Durante el presente estudio se identificaron cinco especies del género Anopheles, incluyendo An. darlingi, An. oswaldoi s.l. y An. nuneztovari s.l., importantes vectores de los parásitos maláricos en Venezuela (Abou et al., 2017;Magris et al., 2007;Moreno et al., 2009;Rubio-Palis, 1994;Rubio-Palis et al., 1992;Rubio-Palis et al., 2013a). Anopheles braziliensis Chagas y An. triannulatus (Neiva & Pinto) s.l., si bien no han sido encontrados naturalmente infectados en Venezuela, son vectores confirmados en Brasil (Galardo et al., 2007;Oliveira-Ferreira et al., 1990;Póvoa et al., 2001). ...
... Estos resultados confirman la plasticidad que presenta esta especie en cuanto al comportamiento hematofágico en diversas zonas del Neotrópico. Un patrón similar fue reportado en Corobal, municipio Cedeño del estado Bolívar (Rubio-Palis, 1995), pero muy diferente a otros patrones reportados en otras localidades de los estados Bolívar y Amazonas (Magris et al., 2007;Moreno et al., 2007;Rubio-Palis, 1995;Rubio-Palis et al., 2013a). En cuanto a An. ...
The efficiency of the Mosquito Magnet Liberty Plus TM (MMLP) trap was evaluated baited with the chemical attractants 1-octen-3-ol (octenol) and Lurex 3M (L-lactic acid) together with carbon dioxide (CO2) to collect anophelines in the Amerindian village Boca de Nichare, Sucre municipality, Bolívar State, Venezuela. The trap was operated between 18:00 and 06: hours, 10 nights per month for four months (July-October 2015), the attractants were alternated nightly. To determine the host seeking behavior of anophelines, the trap cage was changed every 4 hours. Five species of Anopheles and four of Culicinae were collected; Anopheles (Nyssorhynchus) darlingi Root and Anopheles oswaldoi (Peryassú) sensu lato were the most abundant species collected. The Align Rank Transform (ART) test for nonparametric ANOVA for the variable attractant and its interactions with species and hour interval were not significant (p > 0.05). An. darlingi and An. oswaldoi s.l. showed contrasting host seeking activity: An. darlingi showed a peak between 22:00 and 02:00 hours, while in An. oswaldoi s.l. there was a steady increase in activity up to the interval 02:00-06:00 hours. The MMLP trap baited either with octenol or Lurex is an alternative method for entomological surveillance in remote Amerindian malaria endemic areas. The biting activity of the vectors An. darlingi and An. oswaldoi s.l. suggests that the use of long-lasting insecticide treated nets could be an effective method to control the transmission of malaria in this area.
... The Hoti and the Yanomami were also found to have significantly higher odds for Plasmodium falciparum infection. Similar to Plasmodium malariae, Plasmodium falciparum is more prevalent in the rainforest of Amazonas than in the rest of the country [31]. Previous works suggest that the higher prevalence of Plasmodium falciparum and Plasmodium malariae in the Alto Orinoco region might be explained by a longer life expectancy of local Anopheles darlingi mosquito populations [31]. ...
... Similar to Plasmodium malariae, Plasmodium falciparum is more prevalent in the rainforest of Amazonas than in the rest of the country [31]. Previous works suggest that the higher prevalence of Plasmodium falciparum and Plasmodium malariae in the Alto Orinoco region might be explained by a longer life expectancy of local Anopheles darlingi mosquito populations [31]. This might in turn reflect flaws in local vector control strategies, and the lack of targeted measures that adapt to the particular living conditions of the Yanomami and the Hoti, such as their nomadic habits, and housing materials that render IRS and bed nets ineffective [31]. ...
... Previous works suggest that the higher prevalence of Plasmodium falciparum and Plasmodium malariae in the Alto Orinoco region might be explained by a longer life expectancy of local Anopheles darlingi mosquito populations [31]. This might in turn reflect flaws in local vector control strategies, and the lack of targeted measures that adapt to the particular living conditions of the Yanomami and the Hoti, such as their nomadic habits, and housing materials that render IRS and bed nets ineffective [31]. Insecticide-treated hammocks have proven a useful alternative in this context [13]. ...
Background
Fifty-three percent of all cases of malaria in the Americas in 2019 came from Venezuela, where the epidemic is heavily focused south of the Orinoco river, and where most of the country’s Amerindian groups live. Although the disease is known to represent a significant public health problem among these populations, little epidemiological data exists on the subject. This study aims to provide information on malaria incidence, geospatial clustering, and risk factors associated to Plasmodium falciparum infection among these groups.
Methods
This is a descriptive study based on the analysis of published and unpublished programmatic data collected by Venezuelan health authorities and non-government organizations between 2014 and 2018. The Annual Parasite Index among indigenous groups (API-i) in municipalities of three states (Amazonas, Bolivar, and Sucre) were calculated and compared using the Kruskal Wallis test, risk factors for Plasmodium falciparum infection were identified via binomial logistic regression and maps were constructed to identify clusters of malaria cases among indigenous patients via Moran’s I and Getis-Ord’s hot spot analysis.
Results
116,097 cases of malaria in Amerindian groups were registered during the study period. An increasing trend was observed between 2014 and 2016 but reverted in 2018. Malaria incidence remains higher than in 2014 and hot spots were identified in the three states, although more importantly in the south of Bolivar. Most cases (73.3%) were caused by Plasmodium vivax , but the Hoti, Yanomami, and Eñepa indigenous groups presented higher odds for infection with Plasmodium falciparum.
Conclusion
Malaria cases among Amerindian populations increased between 2014 and 2018 and seem to have a different geographic distribution than those among the general population. These findings suggest that tailored interventions will be necessary to curb the impact of malaria transmission in these groups.
... For example, in the area of malaria transmission of Venezuela, a rate of 129 infections per person per year has been reported for some of the three types of Plasmodium parasites. 109 In contrast, inoculation rates of 50 bites per person per year have been reported in some peri-urban zones of Brazil. 14 For the inoculation rates of each particular virus in our study site, we found a rate of 23.4 infectious bites per year for CHKV and ZIKV virus, while the inoculation rate for DENV was double that, at 46.7. ...
BACKGROUND
Dragonfly and damselfly larvae have been considered as possible biocontrol agents against young instars of mosquito vectors in urban environments. Yet our knowledge about adult odonate predation against mosquito adults is scarce. We quantified daily and annual predation rates, consumption rates and prey preferences of adult Hetaerina vulnerata male damselflies in an urban park. A focus on predation of mosquito species was provided, quantified their arbovirus (dengue, chikungunya and Zika) infection rates and biting activity.
RESULTS
Foraging times of H. vulnerata overlapped with those of the maximum activity of hematophagous mosquitoes. The most consumed preys were Diptera and Hymenoptera and, in lower quantities, Hemiptera, Coleoptera, Trichoptera, Psocoptera and Neuroptera. Of note, 7% of the diet was represented by hematophagous dipterans, with 2.4% being Aedes aegypti and Aedes albopictus. Prey abundance in the diet coincided with that of the same species in the environment. The arboviral infection rate (dengue, chikungunya and Zika) was 1.6% for A. aegypti and A. albopictus. The total biting rate of these mosquito vectors was 16 bites per person per day, while the annual rate of infectious bites was 93.4.
CONCLUSION
Although 2.4% for both Aedes species seems a low consumption, considering the presence of 12 odonate species at the park, it can be argued that adult odonates may play a relevant role as mosquito vector regulators, therefore impacting the spread of mosquito‐borne diseases. Our study outlines the need for further research on the topic of the possible role of adult odonates for mosquito biocontrol. © 2021 Society of Chemical Industry.
... Each pool was made of two to five female mosquitoes of the same species, according to the date and site of collection, and type of capture (PHBC or LTs). It has been described that it is possible to detect infectivity in mixtures of mosquitoes; thus, complete mosquitoes of the same species were processed [40][41][42][43][44]. Each pool was placed in an Eppendorf tube, where they were first macerated in a solution of 180 μl of 1X PBS. ...
... Several studies have described patterns of seasonal fluctuation in the abundance and frequency of anophelines vectors, showing greater densities during the rainy months and lower densities during the dry months [61,62]. Few studies have demonstrated no correlation between the levels of precipitation and the density of anophelines mosquitoes [41,58]. On the other hand, it has also been reported that an increase in density can be observed on the transition periods between the dry and rainy seasons [63,64]. ...
Background
More than 85% of the malaria cases in Panama occur in poor, rural and indigenous regions like Darien Province. Vector diversity, infection rate and spatial distribution are important entomological parameters of malaria transmission dynamics. Their understanding is crucial for the development of effective disease control strategies. The objective of this study was to determine the composition of Anopheles species, their natural infection rate and their geographic distribution to better understand the malaria transmission dynamics in Darién, Panama.
Methods
Anophelines mosquitoes were captured during the rainy and dry season of 2016. We selected five communities where adult anophelines were collected using CDC light-traps, and through protective human-baited traps. Detection of natural infection and Plasmodium genotype were detected via nested PCR through the amplification of ssrRNA and the circumsporozoite protein gene (csp), respectively.
Results
A total of 1,063 mosquitoes were collected mosquitoes were collected for the detection of natural infection with Plasmodium spp. Nine Anophelines species were identified, with the predominant species being: An. (Nys.) darlingi (45.0%) and An. (Nys.) albimanus (42.6%). Natural infection in An. (Nys.) albimanus with P. vivax was detected in one mosquito pool from the community Pueblo Tortuga (0.6%), three from Marraganti (1.7%), two from Bajo Chiquito (1.1%) and three pools from Alto Playona 3 (1.7%). For An. (Nys.) darlingi mosquitoes, we detected seven positive pools from the community Bajo Chiquito (4.0%), two pools from Marraganti (1.1%) and two pools from Alto Playona (1.1%). The P. vivax allelic variant VK210 was detected in infected mosquitoes.
Conclusion
The results from this study provide new information on the transmission dynamics associated with anophelines vectors in the Darién region. This is the first report of natural P. vivax infection in An. (Nys.) darlingi and its incrimination as a potential malaria vector in this region of Panama. Additional studies are necessary to expand our knowledge and determine crucial parameters in malaria transmission in Darién, which in turn will aid the National Malaria Program in attaining an adequate malaria control strategy towards malaria elimination.
... Similar to P. malariae, P. falciparum is known to be more prevalent in the rainforest of Amazonas than in the rest of the country. [24] Previous works suggest that the higher prevalence of P. falciparum and P. malariae in the Alto Orinoco region might be explained by a longer life expectancy of local Anopheles darlingi mosquitos. [24] This might in turn re ect aws in local vector control strategies, and the lack of targeted measures that adapt to the particular living conditions of the Yanomami and the Hoti, such as their nomadic habits, and housing materials that render IRS and bed nets ineffective. ...
... [24] Previous works suggest that the higher prevalence of P. falciparum and P. malariae in the Alto Orinoco region might be explained by a longer life expectancy of local Anopheles darlingi mosquitos. [24] This might in turn re ect aws in local vector control strategies, and the lack of targeted measures that adapt to the particular living conditions of the Yanomami and the Hoti, such as their nomadic habits, and housing materials that render IRS and bed nets ineffective. [24] Insecticide treated hammocks have proven to be an useful alternative in this context. ...
... [24] This might in turn re ect aws in local vector control strategies, and the lack of targeted measures that adapt to the particular living conditions of the Yanomami and the Hoti, such as their nomadic habits, and housing materials that render IRS and bed nets ineffective. [24] Insecticide treated hammocks have proven to be an useful alternative in this context. [25] Although miners presented higher odds for P. falciparum infection too, the difference was very small and might be more related to their increased exposure to infectious bites, than to a higher P. falciparum prevalence in Venezuelan mines, which has not been described. ...
Background: Fifty-three percent of all cases of malaria in the Americas in 2019 came from Venezuela, where the epidemic is heavily focused south of the Orinoco river, and where most of the country’s Amerindian groups live. Despite the disease is known to represent a significant public health problem among these populations, little epidemiological data exists on the subject. This study aims to provide information on malaria incidence, geospatial clustering, and risk factors associated to Plasmodium falciparum infection among these groups.
Methods: This is a descriptive study based on the analysis of published and unpublished
programmatic data collected by Venezuelan health authorities and non-government
organizations between 2014 and 2018. The Annual Parasite Index among indigenous groups (API-i) in municipalities of three states: Amazonas, Bolivar and Sucre was calculated and
compared using the Kruskal Wallis test, risk factors for P. falciparum infection were identified
via binomial logistic regression and maps were constructed to identify clusters of malaria
cases among indigenous patients via Moran’s I and Getis-Ord’s hot spot analysis.
Results: 116,097 cases of malaria in Amerindian groups were registered during the study period. An increasing trend was observed between 2014 and 2016 but reverted in 2018. Malaria incidence remains higher than in 2014 and hot spots were identified in the three states, although more importantly south of Bolivar. Most cases (73.3%) were caused by P. vivax, but the Hoti and Yanomami indigenous groups presented higher odds for infection with P. falciparum.
Conclusion: Malaria cases among Amerindian populations increased between 2014 and 2018 and seem to have a different geographic distribution as those among the general population. Our findings suggest that tailored, cost-effective interventions will be needed to curb the negative impact of malaria transmission in these groups. Attention to the Hoti and Yanomami should be prioritized.
... Venezuela successfully achieved malaria elimination in approximately 75% of its territory during the early 1960s [9]. However, low to moderate malaria transmission by P. vivax and P. falciparum persisted in the lowland Amazon rainforests and savannas of the remote Guayana region, mainly in isolated Amerindians communities, South of the Orinoco River [10]. During the 1980s, P. vivax malaria reemerged along the coastal wetlands in the country's northeastern region [11], but its transmission was interrupted twenty years later [12]. ...
Malaria elimination in Latin America is becoming an elusive goal. Malaria cases reached a historical ~1 million in 2017 and 2018, with Venezuela contributing 53% and 51% of those cases, respectively. Historically, malaria incidence in southern Venezuela has accounted for most of the country's total number of cases. The efficient deployment of disease prevention measures and prediction of disease spread to new regions requires an in-depth understanding of spatial heterogeneity on malaria transmission dynamics. Herein, we characterized the spatial epidemiology of malaria in southern Venezuela from 2007 through 2017 and described the extent to which malaria distribution has changed country-wide over the recent years. We found that disease transmission was focal and more prevalent in the southeast region of southern Venezuela where two persistent hotspots of Plasmodium vivax (76%) and P. falciparum (18%) accounted for ~60% of the total number of cases. Such hotspots are linked to deforestation as a consequence of illegal gold mining activities. Incidence has increased nearly tenfold over the last decade, showing an explosive epidemic growth due to a significant lack of disease control programs. Our findings highlight the importance of spatially oriented interventions to contain the ongoing malaria epidemic in Venezuela. This work also provides baseline epidemiological data to assess cross-border malaria dynamics and advocates for innovative control efforts in the Latin American region.
... Phenotypic plasticity, including features such as anthropophily and endo-exophily, have been revealed by entomological surveys of neotropical malaria vectors [58,59]. Anopheles darlingi typically displays a single peak of biting activity before midnight [60][61][62][63][64][65], however, in certain areas two peaks of biting activity are observed: one at dusk and another at dawn [66][67][68][69][70]. Furthermore, An. darlingi biting activity may occur in three peaks at sunset, midnight and dawn [71]. Observations at one locality showed considerable plasticity of this species' biting patterns as well, indicating that intra-population variation of biting activity can be as significant as interpopulation variation [72]. ...
... Phenotypic plasticity, including features such as anthropophily and endo-exophily, have been revealed by entomological surveys of neotropical malaria vectors [58,59]. Anopheles darlingi typically displays a single peak of biting activity before midnight [60][61][62][63][64][65], however, in certain areas two peaks of biting activity are observed: one at dusk and another at dawn [66][67][68][69][70]. Furthermore, An. darlingi biting activity may occur in three peaks at sunset, midnight and dawn [71]. Observations at one locality showed considerable plasticity of this species' biting patterns as well, indicating that intra-population variation of biting activity can be as significant as inter-population variation [72]. ...
In Brazil, malaria transmission is mostly confined to the Amazon, where substantial progress has been made towards disease control in the past decade. Vector control has been historically considered a fundamental part of the main malaria control programs implemented in Brazil. However, the conventional vector-control tools have been insufficient to control or eliminate local vector populations due to the complexity of the Amazonian rainforest environment and ecological features of malaria vector species in the Amazon, especially Anopheles darlingi. Malaria elimination in Brazil and worldwide eradication will require a combination of conventional and new approaches that takes into account the regional specificities of vector populations and malaria transmission dynamics. Here we present an overview on both conventional and novel promising vector-focused tools to curb malaria transmission in the Brazilian Amazon. If well designed and employed, vector-based approaches may improve the implementation of malaria-control programs, particularly in remote or difficult-to-access areas and in regions where existing interventions have been unable to eliminate disease transmission. However, much effort still has to be put into research expanding the knowledge of neotropical malaria vectors to set the steppingstones for the optimization of conventional and development of innovative vector-control tools.
... Phenotypic plasticity, including features such as anthropophily and endo-exophily, have been revealed by entomological surveys of neotropical malaria vectors [58,59]. Anopheles darlingi typically displays a single peak of biting activity before midnight [60][61][62][63][64][65], however, in certain areas two peaks of biting activity are observed: one at dusk and another at dawn [66][67][68][69][70]. Furthermore, An. darlingi biting activity may occur in three peaks at sunset, midnight and dawn [71]. Observations at one locality showed considerable plasticity of this species' biting patterns as well, indicating that intra-population variation of biting activity can be as significant as interpopulation variation [72]. ...
... Phenotypic plasticity, including features such as anthropophily and endo-exophily, have been revealed by entomological surveys of neotropical malaria vectors [58,59]. Anopheles darlingi typically displays a single peak of biting activity before midnight [60][61][62][63][64][65], however, in certain areas two peaks of biting activity are observed: one at dusk and another at dawn [66][67][68][69][70]. Furthermore, An. darlingi biting activity may occur in three peaks at sunset, midnight and dawn [71]. Observations at one locality showed considerable plasticity of this species' biting patterns as well, indicating that intra-population variation of biting activity can be as significant as inter-population variation [72]. ...
In Brazil, malaria transmission is mostly confined to the Amazon, where substantial progress has been achieved towards disease control in the past decade. Vector control has been historically considered a fundamental part of the main malaria control programs implemented in Brazil. However, the conventional vector-control tools have been insufficient to eliminate local vector populations due to the complexity of the Amazonian rainforest environment and ecological features of malaria vector species in the Amazon, especially Anopheles darlingi. Malaria elimination in Brazil and worldwide eradication will require a combination of conventional and new approaches that takes into account the regional specificities of vector populations and malaria transmission dynamics. Here we present an overview on both conventional and novel promising vector-focused tools to curb malaria transmission in the Brazilian Amazon. If well designed and employed, these new vector-based approaches may improve the implementation of malaria-control programs, particularly in remote or difficult-to-access areas and in regions where existing interventions have been unable to eliminate disease transmission. However, much effort still has to be put on research expanding the knowledge of neotropical malaria vectors to set the steppingstones for the development of such innovative tools.
