Figure 5 - uploaded by Kevin MacGregor Adams
Content may be subject to copyright.
Source publication
The first perspective in the system of systems engineering (SoSE) methodology is to ensure that the engineering analysis is supported by an explicit understanding and framing of the problem under study. By explicitly framing the problem and its associated context, the SoSE methodology minimises the chance of a Type III error (i.e., correctly reject...
Context in source publication
Context 1
... SoS and autonomy required to meet the goals and objectives of its own operations will exist. The principle of suboptimisation (Hitch, 1953) states that if each subsystem, regarded separately, is made to operate with maximum efficiency, the system as a whole will not operate with utmost efficiency (Hitch, 1953). When dealing with a SoS, this principle must be accounted for. Optimising each subsystem in the larger SoS independently will not in general lead to a system optimum, or more strongly, improvement of a particular subsystem may actually worsen the overall SoS in what is called suboptimisation. (Note that suboptimisation is more fully addressed in the article by Adams in this journal.) We have defined the environment as “a set of elements and their relevant properties, which elements are not part of the system, but a change in any of which can cause or produce a change in the state of the system” [Ackoff and Emery, (2006), p.19]. SoS are predominantly open to their environments. This is an important point because it permits the conceptualisation of the SoS problem in a hierarchical manner. Because most SoS are part of another larger systems, and themselves contain subsystems, the concept of systems hierarchy is an important concept (note that hierarchy is more fully addressed in the article by Adams in this journal). The hierarchic structure in a SoS can be defined by the following: The hierarchical nature of SoS has far reaching effects which include the high-frequency dynamics involving the internal structure of the components and the low-frequency dynamics involving the interaction among components (Simon, 1996). A SoS is routinely affected by behavioural influences from the systems environment. Because SoS are predominantly open to the environment, environmental disturbances impact the states of the SoS. The state of the SoS is said to change when one or more system properties change over time, in what we term an event. The time-dependent behaviour of a system may be modelled in a state transition diagram (STD). The STD accounts for the impact of external events that cause a change in the systems internal properties or state. Figure 5 is an STD for a standard combination lock (Hatley and Pirbhai, 1988). The rectangular boxes represent unique system states. The arrows that connect the boxes show the state change and contain both the ...
Similar publications
18 days, 850+ martyrs, 6500+ injured are all the quantitative facts of one side of the 25 th January 2011 Revolution of Egypt which resulted in the fall and collapse of Mubarak's regime and his power. As for the other sides of the revolution, there are a lot of explanations about its birth and trigger and the dynamism of the pre-revolutionary perio...
Creating a better world requires a systems thinking mindset that incorporates conflicting ideas, sees the world through multiple perspectives, anticipates the impact of systems in use over time and space, and can reliably adjust for the dynamic influences of an uncertain future. Global engineers of the future need to understand the foundations of s...
This study is a critical assessment of the application of systems theory to the study
of public relations between 1975-2016. I devise and follow a grounded theory method to
deconstruct a representative sample of academic literature, which in turn allows for
thematic analysis of the texts. From this I develop a historical-critical periodization
fram...
Urban systems research utilizes the language of systems theory to grasp the complexity of the urban and the city. This contribution explains the basic principles of urban systems theory and outlines some important pitfalls. Depending on research focus and priority, urban systems have been bracketed geographically and conceptually in different ways...
This paper is on the background of so-called KNOW WHY Thinking-a systemic approach that can be used to reflect on all kinds of complex situations. The approach is based on evolutionary logic, according to which everything in the world, whether it is a product, an organization, a project or an individual needs to both adapt and develop in order to b...
Citations
... The systems engineering framework enables interlinked uncertainties and complexities to be managed simultaneously, and for the technical processes to be aligned with the decision, management and wider related business processes. Systems engineering also takes account of the lifecycle of a system, in addition to requirements analysis and hierarchies of systems that lead to systems-of-systems applications (Adams and Meyers, 2011). ...
In this Chapter we will discuss modelling and reductionism in science and engineering, and how this relates to the new idea of digital twins. In particular, we focus on the historical context of modelling and reductionism for dynamics and control of engineering systems. Both active and passive control methods will be discussed, including the novel ideas associated with the inerter. Based on a selected review of the philosophy of modelling, we consider the role of knowledge and complexity in model making. The related topics of systems engineering, uncertainty analysis and artificial intelligence are also briefly discussed in the context of digital twins. We will argue that utility, trust and insight are the three key properties of models that will ideally be extended to digital twins. We then consider how digital twins will require the dynamic assembly of digital objects in order to recreate emergent behaviours. In order to implement a digital twin, an operational platform is required. We briefly present an aircraft example of a digital twin operational platform. Lastly we consider digital twin knowledge models and ontologies, and how this topic might help shape digital twins in the future.
... A soft operations research (OR) approach is beneficial as it provides means to exploit human judgement for structuring the problem and in particular, SSM provides a means to define the system from the perspective of multiple stakeholders (Checkland and Scholes 1990). Adams and Meyers (2011) noted that the preferred methodology for framing an unstructured complex systems problem is a rich picture from SSM. Heyer (2004) developed an overview of how soft OR methods including SSM contribute to Defence studies. ...
Intelligence, Surveillance and Reconnaissance (ISR) is an integral function of the Australian Army, providing information and intelligence to decision makers at all levels. Army's ISR system comprises the equipment, personnel, processes and organisation that conduct collection activities. However, it has been noted that there is a lack of a guiding concept for future development, resulting in unease in acquisition, a lack of integration, and questions over whether the ISR system is being employed as effectively as possible. Accordingly, Army Headquarters (AHQ) has identified a need for a future Land ISR concept, to be supported by analysis from DST Group. This paper focuses on the problem structuring component of that support. This problem structuring for Army ISR concept development covered the scope, the actors, the current situation, key themes and what the concept is intended to achieve. To do this effectively, it is important to be able to understand, explore and improve the system, and modelling is an important means to represent the system in a way that stakeholders and analysts can agree with, and understand. Given the nature of the problem, Soft Systems Methodology (SSM) was identified as the most appropriate technique due to its focus on finding out about the problematic situation, which will support development of a range of models. The researchers worked with Army stakeholders to develop a SSM rich picture of the ISR system, an analysis of stakeholder roles, and a set of root definitions that could be developed into activity models. This SSM investigation was supplemented by development of an ISR functional model. The majority of the data collected came from a series of three facilitated workshops with AHQ subject matter experts (SME), where the analyst could ask relevant questions of SME to learn about the situation, and present and refine models. Discussion in these workshops covered the role, scope, actors, key themes and functionality of the Army ISR system. The ISR system rich picture was added to and refined at each workshop to describe the ISR system from capability to effects. Models were used to represent and easily modify what relationship each actor had to the ISR concept, and what they wanted from the concept. A model of ISR functionality was also produced as a framework for analysis of concept options. Root definitions, or PQR statements, of the form " do P, by Q, in order to achieve R " , were developed based on the discussion to capture key points for the concept to address. These statements can also be used as measures of effectiveness for the concept. To be effective the concept must address the PQR statements produced, so that it guides capability decisions, considers future systems, describes how capability provides effects, aligns terminology and addresses key themes. This report demonstrates the application of SSM as a basis for problem structuring complex military systems, in order to support development of a range of models that can provide guidance to a military concept writing process.
... However, it appears that there has been a sparse accounting of the 'front end' nature of enquiry for SoSE endeavors. We would be remiss not to acknowledge the efforts of Keating et al. (2003), Adams and Keating (2011), and Adams and Meyers (2011) efforts with respect to guiding initial examination and formulation of the SoSE problem domain. ...
The complex nature of the System of Systems Engineering (SoSE) field and problems it addresses amplifies the need for effective enquiry. Enquiry serves to invoke higher level thinking that can better ground exploration of SoSE problems. Effective enquiry for SoSE practice is an essential first act in any SoSE endeavor and serves to frame all that follows. This paper explores three approaches to enquiry that can support more rigorous formulation of SoSE endeavors. First, paradox is introduced through a series of apparent contradictions for complex systems. The 'resolution' of these paradoxes invites thinking (enquiry) at a more systemic level, providing insights not achievable from more traditional modes of thinking. Second, we examine the field of Critical Thinking as a vehicle to invoke more rigorous thinking about complex issues in SoSE. Finally, Critical Systems Enquiry is introduced through a set of eight critical questions to invoke deeper exploration for SoSE based efforts. The invitation of these three different, but interrelated, enquiry streams provides a guide to elevate thinking for SoSE practitioners hoping to avoid 'thinking failures'. The paper concludes by suggesting challenges for practitioners, researchers, and the evolving SoSE field concerning development, incorporation, and prospects for more advanced systems-based enquiry.
... Geographic diversity is selfexplanatory but this type of diversity may include geo-spatial context as well. Conceptual diversity means that the subsystems may each have a completely different concept of their design and operations (Adams and Meyers, 2011). While other breakdowns of the SoS definition may differ, this deciphering offers a glimpse into the layers and level of complexity that entail today's system of systems. ...
Today's Department of Defense (DoD) System of System (SoS) program managers, engineers, and practitioners face significant Information Assurance (IA) challenges related to whether the interoperability of their SoS is defined as tightly or loosely coupled. An IA threat to one system has varying degrees of risk to all the interconnected systems within an enclave or similarly labeled SoS. While current IA policies do address interconnection weaknesses and stipulate that the system with the highest amount of vulnerabilities will be accounted for across an interface, current policies, procedures and methods fall short in guidance on how to address the weaknesses beyond the first 1:1 interface in a SoS. No current DoD guidance exists with respect to 2nd and 3rd order IA vulnerability effects and subsequent mitigation techniques across the SoS. The purpose of this paper is to break down the meaning of SoS and to analyze both the fundamental concepts and the latest publications regarding SoS IA policies, procedures and methods. It will also provide a brief critique to allow for the consideration of a more robust and rigorous treatment of the DoD SoS IA policy problem. The overall goal is to establish a framework from which the DoD can begin to address the policy reform required to mitigate IA vulnerabilities in modern SoS.
... Concisely, Adams and Meyers (2011, p.172) define a SoS as " A meta-system comprised of multiple autonomous embedded complex systems that can be diverse in technology, context, operations, geography, and conceptual frame " . This definition helps an individual to differentiate between a true SoS and a monolithic complex system. ...
The operational and managerial independence, geographic distribution, emergent behaviour, and evolutionary development that characterise a system of systems (SoS) also ensure that it is impossible to truly optimise it. However, using the concept of satisficing, we can declare that a 'good enough' solution is in fact, sufficient. Why are we all right with this potentially unsettling notion in the context of a system of systems? In part, due to the principle of finite causality introduced in this paper, stating no system outcome can have infinitely bad (or good) implications; thus, the outcome of any action or series of actions is finite in nature. This realisation further bolsters the acceptability of an inherently sub-optimal SoS. This paper explores the notions of why optimisation of a SoS is both: 1) unattainable based on its inherent characteristics and associated systems principles; and 2) unnecessary in practice.
Digital twins are a new paradigm for our time, offering the possibility of interconnected virtual representations of the real world. The concept is very versatile and has been adopted by multiple communities of practice, policymakers, researchers, and innovators. A significant part of the digital twin paradigm is about interconnecting digital objects, many of which have previously not been combined. As a result, members of the newly forming digital twin community are often talking at cross-purposes, based on different starting points, assumptions, and cultural practices. These differences are due to the philosophical world-view adopted within specific communities. In this paper, we explore the philosophical context which underpins the digital twin concept. We offer the building blocks for a philosophical framework for digital twins, consisting of 21 principles that are intended to help facilitate their further development. Specifically, we argue that the philosophy of digital twins is fundamentally holistic and emergentist. We further argue that in order to enable emergent behaviors, digital twins should be designed to reconstruct the behavior of a physical twin by “dynamically assembling” multiple digital “components”. We also argue that digital twins naturally include aspects relating to the philosophy of artificial intelligence, including learning and exploitation of knowledge. We discuss the following four questions (i) What is the distinction between a model and a digital twin? (ii) What previously unseen results can we expect from a digital twin? (iii) How can emergent behaviours be predicted? (iv) How can we assess the existence and uniqueness of digital twin outputs?
Kelps are part of large brown macroalgae species with a fundamental role in temperate to subpolar coastal marine ecosystems and their cultivation has been expanding as part of several efforts and countries' policies. This study explores the relevance of post-harvesting logistics planning involving marine operations of emerging seaweed-based supply chains including kelp species. In the Irish context, we explore the potential of collaboration among low-tropic ocean farming sectors regarding shared space and infrastructure in rural and remote landscapes. Based on empirical data and a novel methodological approach, a multi-method analysis was performed involving geographic information systems, mathematical modelling and qualitative content analysis. The results indicate large potential production and collaboration capacity if current licensed areas and existing infrastructure were integrated with kelp cultivation for further processing and distribution in 40 local supply hubs and 14 optimal locations for shared processing facilities. Moreover, the different transportation scenarios considered indicate that costs and greenhouse gas emissions could be minimised by reducing moisture content locally and with increased payload. Further linkages reveal uncertainties in the uses of alternative methods of preservation such as ensiling and a lack of attention to non-market values. For future valorisation in diverse commercial and non-commercial applications, seaweed farming and collaborative processing opportunities still need to be incorporated into societal discourses and futures envisioned by rural coastal communities, including the engagement of young generations in such transformation pathways.
Tranziția la orașele inteligente nu înseamnă renunțarea la
toată dezvoltarea existentă și înființarea unor orașe noi, după tipare noi,
standardizate, ci dimpotrivă. Acest proces trebuie centrat pe contextul și
ecosistemele actuale. Prin concepte și tehnologii noi, orașele inteligente
trebuie să restabilească echilibrul natural primordial, iar spațiile verzi să
fie adaptate circumstanțelor actuale și astfel să contribuie la atenuarea
schimbărilor climatice resimțite la nivel global.
Din această perspectivă, în România, tranziția către orașele inteligente
trebuie să pornească de la presiunile cu care se confruntă mediile urbane,
în special Capitala, în special la carența spațiilor verzi, amplasarea,
tipologia, starea și managementul acestora.
This chapter articulates the utility of system pathology to problem formulation in complex systems. In Complex System Governance, the problem formulation is pivotal in the initialization stage involving system context and framing. Context revolves around establishing the particular circumstances within which the system of interest is embedded. Framing involves establishing the design configuration and execution of the system. This chapter suggests that pathology identification is a crucial part of problem formulation. However, there is a lack of qualitative studies suggesting a direct link between system pathology and problem formulation. The goal of this chapter is to make this link explicit. This is done through the following steps: (i) reviewing systems-based methodologies while emphasizing problem formulation, (ii) understanding the various perspectives of system pathology, (iii) development of an enhanced model (UPGR2IDS) for classifying system pathology at the metasystem level, (iv) high-level application of the model in complex system governance. The chapter concludes with questions to engage the reader.KeywordsComplex system governanceComplexityManagement cyberneticsMetapathologyProblem formulationGeneral systems theorySystem pathologySystems theory-based pathologyViable system model
A complex system’s identity and viability are directly related and affected by its context. It is important to identify, monitor, and manage (or mitigate risk) of system contextual elements. This chapter defines complex system context with respect to Complex System Governance (CSG) and provides a methodology to define relevant contextual elements for the practitioner to use for risk mitigation and governance. Leveraging the systems of systems engineering (SoSE) methodology as described in Keating and Adams, Overview of the systems of systems engineering methodology [2], and Crownover’s complex system contextual framework (CSCF) [6] this article will help the practitioner identify and evaluate relative importance of contextual elements to maintain the viability and identity of a complex system.KeywordsComplex system governance (CSG)ContextContextual frameworkSoSE or system of systems engineeringComplex system contextual framework (CSCF)Contextual frameworkContext matrix
