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Self-control is often conceived as a battle between “hot” impulsive processes and “cold” deliberative ones. Heeding the angel on one shoulder leads to success; following the demon on the other leads to failure. Self-control feels like a duality. What if that sensation is misleading, and, despite how they feel, self-control decisions are just like a...
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... Decision-making researchers generally assume that people, when they make value-based decisions (e.g., decisions to interact with other people), first assign subjective value to different choice options (Berkman, 2018;Berkman et al., 2017;Gluth et al., 2012;Gold & Shadlen, 2007;Rangel et al., 2008;Verbruggen et al., 2014), and then choose the highest-valued choice alternative. Interestingly, mere (in) actions 1 without any external reinforcement are sufficient to influence subjective value of choice options (Veling et al., 2022). ...
Although social interactions are ubiquitous, people often choose not to interact with others—for example, people may choose to not greet a stranger, to not talk to a colleague at work, or to ignore a text message from a friend. Here, we systematically investigate how people's actions, inactions, and their consequences (rewards and punishments) affect impressions. In four preregistered experiments (N = 240), we used a reinforcement learning go/no-go task, in which people learned to act or not act to images of fractals/faces to obtain rewards or avoid punishments. Findings replicated the action–valence asymmetry in learning (Experiments 1–4): People more easily learned to act when acting led to the attainment of rewards (vs. the avoidance of punishments), while people learned inactions more easily when these inactions led to the avoidance of punishments (vs. the attainment of rewards). Our experiments demonstrate that these action–valence asymmetries extend to social stimuli (Experiment 2 ingroup faces; Experiment 3 outgroup faces; Experiment 4 ingroup and outgroup faces) and that they affect subsequent impressions. That is, people evaluated faces most positively when acting had previously led to the attainment of rewards; people evaluated faces most negatively when not acting had previously led to the avoidance of punishment. We discuss our findings in light of the approach–avoidance literature. This work has implications for our understanding of the role of inactions in social contexts: It shows evidence that inactions lead to less positive impressions than actions, over and above the effect of punishment signals.
... Value-based decision making (VBDM) provides a framework that can be used to model the internal cognitive processes that determine momentary decisions (Berkman et al., 2017). According to VBDM, choice options (e.g., whether to smoke a cigarette, or to go for a run) are identified and assigned an overall value. ...
Induction of negative mood increases tobacco choice in dependent smokers; however, less is known about the mechanisms behind this. This study addressed this gap by applying a computational model of value-based decision making to tobacco and tobacco-unrelated choices following mood manipulation. Using a preregistered, within-subject design, 49 daily tobacco smokers (>10 daily cigarettes) watched two different videos which primed them to experience negative and positive mood (tobacco valuation and devaluation, respectively). Participants completed self-report measures of mood and craving to smoke before and after priming, followed by a two-alternative forced-choice task with (separate) blocks of tobacco-related and tobacco-unrelated (animal) images. On each block, participants selected the image that they previously rated higher. A drift-diffusion model was fitted to the reaction time and error data to estimate evidence accumulation processes and response thresholds during the different blocks. After watching videos intended to induce negative mood, happiness scores were lower (p < .001, d = 1.16), while sadness and craving to smoke scores were higher (both ps < .001, ds > .60) compared to after watching videos intended to induce positive mood. However, contrary to hypotheses, the experimental manipulation did not robustly affect evidence accumulation rates (F = 1.15, p = .29, ηp² = .02) or response thresholds (F = .07, p = .79, ηp² = .00) for either tobacco or tobacco-unrelated decisions. Manipulation of mood in daily smokers did not lead to alterations in the internal processes that precede value-based decisions made about tobacco and tobacco-unrelated cues.
... However, a recent meta-analysis that exclusively incorporated sport and exercise-related studies failed to identify an effect of a primary self-control act on individuals' motivation (Hunte et al., 2024; see also Stocker et al., 2020). According to Berkman and colleagues (2017), self-control can be conceptualized as a value-based choice (e.g., Berkman et al., 2017). This is to say that, in a given situation (e.g., Sunday evening) individuals assign a value to each potential response option (e.g., hit the gym vs. watch a movie vs. go to bed) by subtracting the cost of each option from the potential benefits. ...
Self-control is defined as the ability to suppress immediate behavioural impulses, delay immediate gratification, and manage potential goal conflicts. Consequently, self-control can be seen as an indispensable skill in sport, influencing performance, discipline, and resilience. A substantial body of research has demonstrated the existence of relatively stable individual differences in general self-control ability, while also highlighting instances of its susceptibility to failure under specific conditions. By understanding and developing self-control, athletes can better manage the demands of their sport, maintain consistency under pressure, and achieve long-term success. The purpose of this article is to review the most prominent models of self-control in the field of sport and exercise, and to discuss the potential shortcomings of these models. Furthermore, the differences and similarities between self-control and mental fatigue are outlined and discussed. Finally, future avenues for improving self-control research are outlined and critically reflected upon.
... result of a cost-benefit calculation based on integrating values for oneself and others 12,17,18 . Interestingly, studies in the non-social domain suggest differences between younger and older adults in tasks that require integrating information from different sources or cost-benefit trade-offs 11,[19][20][21] , potentially due to aging-related changes in available cognitive (control) resources 21,22 . ...
Previous research suggests that older adults may display more prosocial behavior than younger adults. However, recent meta-analyses indicate that effects are heterogeneous, may be small, and are influenced by how prosociality is measured. Further, the precise cognitive and computational factors contributing to age-related differences in prosocial behavior remain largely unknown. In this study, we utilized a modified dictator game to combine a value-based decision framework with Bayesian hierarchical drift-diffusion modeling to investigate prosocial decision-making in a sample of younger (n = 63) and older adults (n = 48). We observed differences in how older and younger individuals incorporate information corresponding to potential gains for themselves (self) and another person (other) to reach a (potentially prosocial) decision. Younger adults integrated values for benefits for themselves and others in the decision-making process and demonstrated increased decision-making efficiency by effectively integrating both sources of information. In contrast, older adults showed improved decision-making efficiency when solely considering values for self and others separately. Interestingly, individual differences in the capacity of inhibitory control in older adults moderated the observed age effects: older adults with stronger inhibitory control abilities made decisions based on the integrated information of benefits for themselves and others. Together, these findings offer new insights into the behavioral and computational mechanisms influencing age effects in prosocial decision-making.
... Several studies have highlight the unique of glass ceiling phenomenon, predominantly affecting higher management level (Babic & Hansez, 2021;Berkman et al., 2017;Lupu, 2012). Firstly, the essence of glass ceiling lies in its discriminatory nature against women in management. ...
PurposeThis study aims to investigate the influence of work-family conflict and the glass ceiling on the performance of female lecturers in higher education institutions, with job satisfaction examined as a mediating variable. Design/methodology/approachA quantitative research approach was employed, utilizing a survey method to collect data from 98 female lecturers affiliated with the APTIK network. Data analysis was conducted using Partial Least Squares Structural Equation Modeling (PLS-SEM) to examine the hypothesized relationships among variables. FindingsThe results demonstrate that both work-family conflict and the glass ceiling have significant negative effects on job satisfaction. Furthermore, job satisfaction is proven to mediate the relationship between these factors and female lecturer performance. These findings highlight the critical role of psychological well-being in enhancing academic performance among female lecturers. Practical implicationsThe study provides actionable insights for human resource management in higher education institutions to design effective policies and interventions aimed at reducing work-family conflict and breaking the glass ceiling. Enhancing job satisfaction can be a strategic approach to improving lecturer performance. Originality/valueThis research offers empirical evidence on the mediating role of job satisfaction in the relationship between work-family conflict, the glass ceiling, and lecturer performance. The study contributes to the limited body of knowledge focusing on female academic staff within the APTIK network, offering valuable guidance for institutional development and gender equity initiatives. KeywordsWork-family conflict, Glass ceiling, Lecturer performance, Job satisfaction, Female lecturers, Higher education
... Early conceptualizations defined self-control as an inherent capacity that allows people to delay gratification (Mischel et al., 1989), inhibit impulses (Hofmann et al., 2009), and control unwanted desires or temptations (Kotabe & Hofmann, 2015;Tangney et al., 2004). More recent conceptualizations center around motivational explanations and assume that self-control is not about the constant inhibition of desires but rather about choosing what is the most valuable behavior within a given situation and moment (Berkman et al., 2017;Sullivan et al., 2015). This might be the option that maximizes future rewards (e.g., exercise), or an option that maximizes well-being in the present (e.g., relax on the sofa). ...
... Recent models of self-control argue that self-control is not about the strict inhibition of hedonic desires, but rather a matter of choosing the option that is most valuable in a given situation (e.g., exercise vs. relax, Berkman et al., 2017). Others argue that self-control is a question of applying the right strategies or building adaptive habits (Galla & Duckworth, 2015;Gillebaart & Schneider, 2024;Hennecke & Bürgler, 2020). ...
... Our research contributes to these ideas in several ways. First, high self-control individuals seem to prefer spending their time in a way that feels meaningful rather than pleasurable, which might help them make the "right" decision more often (Berkman et al., 2017), that is, choose the option that is in line with their long-term goals and values. Further, this preference might also help explain why individuals with high self-control experience less vice-virtue conflicts in everyday life (Hofmann et al., 2014) and experience self-control as effortless (Gillebaart & Schneider, 2024). ...
The link between self-control and success in various life domains is often explained by people avoiding hedonic pleasures, such as through inhibition, making the right choices, or using adaptive strategies. We propose an additional explanation: High self-control individuals prefer spending time on meaningful activities rather than pleasurable ones, whereas the opposite is true for individuals with high trait hedonic capacity. In Studies 1a and 1b, participants either imagined ( N = 449) or actually engaged in activities ( N = 231, pre-registered) during unexpected free time. They then rated their experience. In both studies, trait self-control was positively related to the eudaimonic experience (e.g., meaning) of activities and unrelated to their hedonic experience (e.g., pleasure). The opposite was true for trait hedonic capacity. Study 2 ( N = 248) confirmed these findings using a repeated-choice paradigm. The preference for eudaimonic over hedonic experiences may be a key aspect of successful long-term goal pursuit.
... Overall, a broad interpretation of our findings aligns with previous studies suggesting that the GNG task can be conceptualized as a tool for cognitive training aimed at enhancing self-control, in which self-control is assumed to be a process involving value-based decision-making (Berkman et al., 2017). By reframing the GNG task as a decision-making paradigm rather than merely an inhibitory paradigm, it is reasonable to infer that GNG training could facilitate changes in the subjective value attributed to food (Rangel et al., 2008). ...
Despite the apparent simplicity of the go/no-go (GNG) task, in which individuals selectively respond or withhold responses, there is strong evidence supporting its efficacy in terms of modulating food preferences. Herein, we manipulated sweet taste perception and investigated the no-go devaluation effect that is typically observed due to GNG training with respect to sweet and savory food items. Prior to engaging in a GNG task, one group of participants rinsed their mouths with a liquid solution containing gymnemic acid, thereby transiently and selectively inhibiting sweet taste perception, while another group used a placebo solution. The participants who rinsed their mouths with gymnemic acid exhibited a stronger overall decrease in food evaluations from pre to post training. Furthermore, a pronounced no-go devaluation effect was observed for sweet foods, irrespective of the rinsing solution. Overall, our results support the notion that training in the GNG task can induce changes in the valuation of food stimuli, particularly for sweet foods.
... incongruent Stroop trials) consume finite resources, they may tip the balance toward greater desire-driven reward-seeking behavior reflected in the enhanced RewP. Moreover, the results are consistent with theoretical models that conceptualize self-control as a value-based choice (Berkman et al. 2017;Pfeifer and Berkman, 2018). According to them, exercising control shifts value-based calculations in favor of more immediate options over (more effortful) options. ...
The reward responsivity hypothesis of self-control proposes that, irrespective of self-control success, exercising self-control is aversive and engenders negative affect. To countermand this discomfort, reward-seeking behavior may be amplified after bouts of self-control, bringing individuals back to a mildly positive baseline state. Previous studies indicated that effort—an integral component of self-control—can increase reward responsivity. We sought to test and extend the reward responsivity hypothesis by asking if exercising self-control increases a neural marker of reward responsivity (Reward Positivity) differentially for hedonic rewards or eudaimonic rewards. We instructed participants (N = 114) to complete a speeded reaction time task where they exercised self-control (incongruent Stroop trials) or not (congruent Stroop trials), and then had the opportunity to win money for themselves (hedonic rewards) or a charity (eudaimonic rewards) while EEG was recorded. Consistent with the reward responsivity hypothesis, participants evinced a larger RewP after exercising self-control (vs. not exercising self-control). Participants also showed a larger RewP for hedonic over eudaimonic rewards. Self-control and reward type did not interactively modulate RewP, suggesting that self-control increases the reward responsivity in a domain-general manner. The findings provide a neurophysiological mechanism for the reward responsivity hypothesis of self-control and promise to revitalize the relevant literature.
... Consistent with the proposition that relinquishing goal efforts while maintaining goal commitment can lead to distress (Wrosch, Scheier, Miller, et al., 2003), shelving-related opportunity costs may represent a psychological cost that could negatively affect the pursuit of the prioritized goal. Specifically, missing out on the shelved goal could taint motivation for the prioritized goal, as adding a negative attribute to the prioritized goal (e.g., "I have to miss out on my shelved goal to prioritize this goal") could render the net subjective value of the goal less positive (see Berkman et al., 2017 for an account of multiattribute integration). In support of such a possible tainting effect, prior research has shown that the coactivation of negative affect and goal representations can reduce goal desirability (e.g., De Houwer et al., 2001). ...
... Future work should test for processes underlying these within-person (co-)fluctuations. For example, processes of attribute integration (Berkman et al., 2017), dissonance reduction (Bullens et al., 2013;Festinger, 1957), or post hoc justifications (e.g., Norton et al., 2012) may underlie the observed negative association of prioritized goal motivation with shelving-related opportunity costs and its positive association with shelving-related investment perception. This line of research could also assess the extent to which self-conscious emotions, such as guilt and pride, play a role in supporting or undermining prioritized goal motivation (e.g., Hofmann & Fisher, 2012). ...
... For instance, future work could target mothers or fathers who recently shelved a professional goal to explore whether the observed (concomitants of) opportunity cost experiences also emerge for shelved goals that may be less hedonic than leisure goals. It is possible that goals that are pursued because of immediate or experiential rewards (that lie in the goal-directed activities themselves; e.g., Woolley & Fishbach, 2017) are more prone to opportunity costs experiences than goals that are pursued for delayed rewards (e.g., wealth) or identity-based reasons (e.g., social status; see also Berkman et al., 2017). The extent to which the shelving decision is construed to as self-initiated versus externally driven (i.e., due to resource restrictions) may shape opportunity cost and investment perceptions. ...
To promote goal success, people may choose to temporarily shelve some goal pursuits to prioritize other goal pursuits. Unfortunately, shelving goals can lead to opportunity costs: having to miss out on the benefits of the shelved goal. The present research uses data from a 3-month intensive longitudinal diary study to test whether opportunity costs related to the shelved goal can undermine or support the motivation to pursue the prioritized goal. Results provide first evidence for both, a direct negative tainting and an indirect positive bolstering effect. Greater perceived shelving-related opportunity costs on a day predicted lower valuation of, commitment toward, and planned efforts for the prioritized goal on that day. However, greater perceived shelving-related opportunity costs also predicted perceptions of greater investment, which in turn predicted greater valuation of, commitment toward, and planned efforts for the prioritized goal. Taken together, these findings provide the first longitudinal evidence of motivational benefits and costs of goal shelving as a strategy for goal prioritization.
... However, the fact that discounting is elevated in some disorders (e.g., substance use disorder; Amlung et al., 2017;MacKillop et al., 2011) but not in OCD suggests that delay discounting might be helpful for differentiating between disorders that otherwise share features. Finally, our null finding is important because it adds to a growing body of evidence that shows that steep delay discounting does not reflect a lack of inhibitory control (Berkman et al., 2017;Jauregi et al., 2018;Lempert et al., 2020;Urošević et al., 2016). A lack of inhibitory control is a prominent feature in OCD; people with OCD often feel compelled to perform actions that they know they should resist performing (Chamberlain et al., 2005;Norman et al., 2019). ...
Although obsessive compulsive disorder (OCD) features maladaptive decision-making, previous research that examined economic decision-making in OCD has yielded inconsistent results. Here, we examined whether unmedicated adults with OCD ( n = 268) differ from healthy control subjects (HCSs; n = 256) on two measures of decision-making about potential rewards: (a) delay discounting, the tendency to prefer rewards sooner rather than later, even if the delayed reward is larger, and (b) risk tolerance, the willingness to gamble for uncertain rewards when the risk is known. Data were collected in Brazil, India, the Netherlands, South Africa, and the United States as part of the Global OCD study. After controlling for age, sex, education, socioeconomic status, IQ, and site, individuals with OCD did not differ from HCSs in either delay discounting or risk tolerance. However, patients with OCD who reported more anxiety and depression showed higher delay discounting, or a relative preference for immediate rewards.
