Figure - available via license: Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International
Content may be subject to copyright.
Source publication
Reading disorder (RD), a specific learning disorder (SLD) of reading that includes impairment in word reading, reading fluency, and/or reading comprehension, is common in the general population but often is not comprehensively understood or assessed in mental health settings. In education settings, comorbid mental and associated disorders may be in...
Similar publications
Dyslexia is a specific learning disorder related to school failure. Detection is both crucial and challenging, especially in languages with transparent orthographies, such as Spanish. To make detecting dyslexia easier, we designed an online gamified test and associated predictive machine learning model. In a study with more than 4,300 participants,...
Dyslexia is a specific learning disorder which has a neurobiological origin and is characterized by the presence of reading difficulties not accounted for by sensory, neurological, or intellectual deficits. Many researches indicated have conducted to study the effect of a computerized program to help students with dyslexia as it has proven its effe...
Brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF) plays an essential role in neuronal survival, especially in areas responsible for memory and learning. The BDNF Val66Met polymorphism has been described as a cognitive modifier in people with neuropsychiatric disorders. BDNF levels have been found to be low in children with learning disorder (LD). However, V...
Background:
Some studies suggest that children with language and learning disorders (LLDs) show more internalizing and externalizing problems than their peers. However, the available evidence remains inconsistent, especially regarding the conditions under which these psychological problems occur.
Methods:
We performed a meta-analysis of studies...
Children with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) often exhibit comorbid specific learning disorders. In clinical samples, comorbidity in girls with ADHD tends to be more common than in boys with ADHD. However, this is not the case in studies of random samples. In this paper gender differences in the comorbidity of ADHD symptoms and lea...
Citations
... If it is demonstrated that reading performance is reduced or even impossible because at least one or more necessary conditions are lacking and/or because no sufficient condition is present, these are causes of reduced reading performance or the inability to read. Concerning the concepts of causation specified here and earlier [58][59][60][61][62][63][64][65], impairments that have been demonstrated to occur together with DD (e.g., [13,[74][75][76][77][78][79][80][81][82][83][84][85][86][87]) turn out to be only concomitant impairments that do not fulfill the requirement for a causal relationship. ...
In recent decades, theories have been presented to explain the nature of dyslexia, but the causes of dyslexia remained unclear. Although the investigation of the causes of dyslexia presupposes a clear understanding of the concept of cause, such an understanding is missing. The present paper proposes the absence of at least one necessary condition or the absence of all sufficient conditions as causes for impaired reading. The causes of impaired reading include: an incorrect fixation location, too short a fixation time, the attempt to recognize too many letters simultaneously, too large saccade amplitudes, and too short verbal reaction times. It is assumed that a longer required fixation time in dyslexic readers results from a functional impairment of areas V1, V2, and V3 that require more time to complete temporal summation. These areas and areas that receive input from them, such as the fusiform gyrus, are assumed to be impaired in their ability to simultaneously process a string of letters. When these impairments are compensated by a new reading strategy, reading ability improves immediately.
... [2] Do the associations differ when comparing children with and without LD? [3] Do these associations differ when examining either being both a bully and a victim compared to only being a victim or a bully? [4] Do these associations differ for boys compared to girls, and do these associations differ when taking IQ and SES into account? ...
... To answer research question [3] (Do these associations differ when examining either being both a bully and a victim compared to only being a victim or a bully), another path analysis was performed. To this aim, the variables described above were modeled with either only victimization or only bullying perpetration as the outcome variable. ...
... After that, to answer research question [3] (Do these associations differ when examining either being both a bully and a victim compared to only being a victim or a bully), the outcome variable for the final model described above, was respecified. Specifications were to either have only victimization or only bullying perpetration as the outcome variable. ...
Background
Both learning disorders and bullying are major sources of public concern. Children with learning disorders often suffer from social rejection, potentially rendering them more susceptible to bullying involvement. Bullying involvement leads to a higher risk towards developing various problems including self-harm and suicidality. Past research on whether learning disorders are childhood bullying risk factors yielded inconsistent results.
Methods
The current study used path analyses on a representative sample of 2,925 German 3rd and 4th grades to examine whether learning disorders are a direct bullying risk factor, or whether their impact depends on psychiatric comorbidity. More so, the current study sought to examine whether associations differ between children with and without learning disorders, compare different bullying roles (i.e., only victim, only bully, or bully-victim), compare gender, and control for IQ and socioeconomic status.
Results
Results indicated that learning disorders are not a direct but rather an indirect childhood risk factor for bully-victim involvement, depending on psychiatric comorbidity with internalizing or externalizing disorders. Regarding the comparison between the samples of children with and without learning disorders, an overall difference and a difference in the path between spelling and externalizing disorders emerged. No difference for different bullying roles (i.e., only victim, only bully) emerged. Negligible differences emerged when IQ and socioeconomic status were controlled. An overall gender difference emerged, compatible with past research, indicating higher bullying involvement among boys compared to girls.
Conclusion
Children with learning disorders are at a higher risk of having psychiatric comorbidity, which in turn renders them at a higher risk of bullying involvement. Implications for bullying interventions and school professionals are deduced.
... Reading Disability (RD) is a common neurocognitive disorder, resulting in difficulties predominantly with word reading [1]. It overlaps both clinically and genetically with other neurodevelopmental disorders [2]. Together, these difficulties impact academic achievement and subsequent employment opportunities, resulting in life-long sequelae. ...
Neuroimaging studies implicate multiple cortical regions in reading ability/disability. However, the neural cell types integral to the reading process are unknown. To contribute to this gap in knowledge, we integrated genetic results from genome-wide association studies for word reading (n = 5054) with gene expression datasets from adult/fetal human brain. Linkage disequilibrium score regression (LDSC) suggested that variants associated with word reading were enriched in genes expressed in adult excitatory neurons, specifically layer 5 and 6 FEZF2 expressing neurons and intratelencephalic (IT) neurons, which express the marker genes LINC00507, THEMIS, or RORB. Inhibitory neurons (VIP, SST, and PVALB) were also found. This finding was interesting as neurometabolite studies previously implicated excitatory-inhibitory imbalances in the etiology of reading disabilities (RD). We also tested traits that shared genetic etiology with word reading (previously determined by polygenic risk scores): attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD), educational attainment, and cognitive ability. For ADHD, we identified enrichment in L4 IT adult excitatory neurons. For educational attainment and cognitive ability, we confirmed previous studies identifying multiple subclasses of adult cortical excitatory and inhibitory neurons, as well as astrocytes and oligodendrocytes. For educational attainment and cognitive ability, we also identified enrichment in multiple fetal cortical excitatory and inhibitory neurons, intermediate progenitor cells, and radial glial cells. In summary, this study supports a role of excitatory and inhibitory neurons in reading and excitatory neurons in ADHD and contributes new information on fetal cell types enriched in educational attainment and cognitive ability, thereby improving our understanding of the neurobiological basis of reading/correlated traits.
... Students with LBLD, however, come to the task of decoding and understanding text with additional, longstanding processing challenges of oral or written language. In addition, students with LBLD also face elevated concern for anxiety, depression, and related psycho-social vulnerabilities (Hendren et al., 2018). Intersecting biological, environmental, and psychosocial factors can contribute a varied spectrum of reading abilities and longitudinal outcomes for this population (Yu et al., 2018). ...
... Socio-emotional skills are thought to play a critical role in adolescent outcomes, particularly among those affected by traumatic experiences, as well as populations identified with specific learning difficulties (Hendren et al., 2018). On one hand, students with learning disabilities are more likely to have lower academic self-efficacy and endorse fixed beliefs about intelligence-maladaptive characteristics that are negatively associated with performance and achievement (Baird et al., 2009). ...
... Most studies of interventions for RD and comorbid diagnoses such as anxiety and depression analyze co-occurring diagnoses individually, indicating a need for future work to address relationships among comorbid factors (Hendren et al., 2018). We present a study with an adolescent sample with LBLD, examining stress related to COVID-19, risk factors (i.e., post-traumatic stress disorder, anxiety, depression), resilience factors (i.e., social-emotional skills, executive functions), and performance on reading measures, to identify predictive relationships among variables, at the start and end of a fully remote school year during the COVID-19 pandemic. ...
Unlabelled:
Students with language-based learning disabilities (LBLD) can face elevated socio-emotional well-being challenges in addition to literacy challenges. We examined the prevalence of risk and resilience factors among adolescents with LBLD (N = 93), ages 16-18, and the association with reading performance during the COVID-19 pandemic. Data were collected at the start and end of the first fully remote academic year of COVID-19 (2020-2021). Participants completed standardized word and text reading measures, as well as self-report surveys of executive functions (EF), and socio-emotional skills associated with resilience (grit, growth mindset, self-management, self-efficacy, and social awareness) or risk (anxiety, depression, COVID-19 related PTSD, and perceived COVID-19 impact). Survey data at the start of the school year (Time 1) captured three underlying factors associated with socioemotional risk, socioemotional resilience, and regulation (i.e., EF). Path analyses revealed that students' Time 2 oral reading scores were significantly and uniquely predicted by socioemotional resilience, even when controlling for word-level reading at Time 1. Socioemotional risk, EF, and perceived COVID-19 impact were not directly related to Time 2 oral reading scores; however, students' resilience mediated the associations between risk and reading outcomes. These results demonstrate that adolescents' mental health concerns, self-regulatory ability, and socioemotional resilience were all associated with their experiences of the COVID-19-related stress. However, despite the high-risk context of the pandemic, and socio-emotional challenges faced by students with LBLD, our findings indicate that resilience directly predicts end-of-year reading outcomes and mediates the impact of socioemotional risk on achievement.
Supplementary information:
The online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1007/s11145-022-10361-8.
... RD is characterized by difficulties with word reading and spelling, despite typical intelligence and motivation to learn [7]. Affected children often have comorbid neurodevelopmental disorders, including language or speech impairments, or attention-deficit/ hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) [8]. These factors increase social difficulties, decrease self-esteem, and hinder academic/occupational success [9][10][11][12]. ...
Reading Disability (RD) is often characterized by difficulties in the phonology of the language. While the molecular mechanisms underlying it are largely undetermined, loci are being revealed by genome-wide association studies (GWAS). In a previous GWAS for word reading (Price, 2020), we observed that top single-nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) were located near to or in genes involved in neuronal migration/axon guidance (NM/AG) or loci implicated in autism spectrum disorder (ASD). A prominent theory of RD etiology posits that it involves disturbed neuronal migration, while potential links between RD-ASD have not been extensively investigated. To improve power to identify associated loci, we up-weighted variants involved in NM/AG or ASD, separately, and performed a new Hypothesis-Driven (HD)–GWAS. The approach was applied to a Toronto RD sample and a meta-analysis of the GenLang Consortium. For the Toronto sample (n = 624), no SNPs reached significance; however, by gene-set analysis, the joint contribution of ASD-related genes passed the threshold (p~1.45 × 10–2, threshold = 2.5 × 10–2). For the GenLang Cohort (n = 26,558), SNPs in DOCK7 and CDH4 showed significant association for the NM/AG hypothesis (sFDR q = 1.02 × 10–2). To make the GenLang dataset more similar to Toronto, we repeated the analysis restricting to samples selected for reading/language deficits (n = 4152). In this GenLang selected subset, we found significant association for a locus intergenic between BTG3-C21orf91 for both hypotheses (sFDR q < 9.00 × 10–4). This study contributes candidate loci to the genetics of word reading. Data also suggest that, although different variants may be involved, alleles implicated in ASD risk may be found in the same genes as those implicated in word reading. This finding is limited to the Toronto sample suggesting that ascertainment influences genetic associations.
... Willcutt and Pennington (2000) estimated that 15% -40% of children with DD are also diagnosed with ADHD, and similarly 25% -40% of children with ADHD are diagnosed with DD (Boada, Willcutt & Pennington 2012). In a more recent study, Hendren and colleagues reviewed the prevalence and characteristics of DD's comorbidities in a group of individuals under the age of 18 years (Hendren et al. 2018). They researched relevant articles from 1997 to 2017, and they found that research on comorbidity between DD and ADHD is extensive (Germanò, Gagliano & Curatolo 2010;Sexton et al. 2012;Willcutt et al. 2010). ...
Background: Dyslexia and attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) are marked comorbid neurodevelopmental disorders with an estimated bidirectional comorbidity of 25% – 40%. Previous international studies have identified strong hereditary and neurological overlap between these disorders, but the comorbidity of these developmental disorders in a South African practice has not yet been explored.
Methods: This retrospective study aimed to investigate the co-existence of ADHD and the specific learning disorder (SLD) related to reading known as developmental dyslexia (DD). Additionally, the study sought to determine possible correlations between the overlapping diagnostic factors of the two developmental disorders. The study database consisted of 847 learners ranging from 8 to 18 years of age. Study data were obtained through a parent questionnaire regarding scholastic difficulties as well as prior ADHD diagnosis and/or treatment. A comprehensive psychometric assessment of DD was conducted on each participant in the first language of educational instruction, that is English or Afrikaans, to establish a direct dyslexia diagnosis as inclusion criterion.
Results: Of the 847 participants analysed in this study, 38.6% presented with a co-existing diagnosis of both ADHD and DD. However, there was no evidence of statistically significant interdependency between overlapping diagnostic factors of these two disorders.
Conclusions: The zero-correlations in the mentioned areas may indicate an overlap of shared symptoms rather than of distinctive diagnostic approaches.
... Low SES may increase the likelihood of students being overidentified for special education services (Catts & Petscher, 2022;Connor & Fernandez, 2006;Shifrer et al., 2011), although some intersecting marginalized identities are associated with under-identification for services (Morgan et al., 2015). Students with SLD often have struggles that extend beyond their primary area of difficulty, impacting academic as well as socioemotional outcomes (Hendren et al., 2018). We examine the intersectionality of SES and SLD in the current study to explore a potentially more representative understanding of vulnerable students. ...
This study explored the effects of Specific Learning Disability (SLD) and socioeconomic status (SES) on the longitudinal development of reading and math from kindergarten through fifth grade in the nationally-representative ECLS-K:2011 dataset. First we used hierarchical linear modeling (HLM) to compare reading and math skills at school entry and growth rates through fifth grade between children with SLD (N=540) and their typically developing (TD) peers (N=8,650). Although most children were not identified with SLD until third grade or later, this group exhibited significantly lower academic skills at kindergarten entry. Students with SLD had steeper initial growth in reading and math; however, these different rates of change were insufficient to close the initial gaps, resulting in largely stable group differences over time. We then examined the interaction between SLD and SES. No significant differences were observed in reading or math growth by SES for children with SLD versus TD children. However, the gap in reading achievement at school entry favoring higher SES children was significantly narrower among children with SLD. This reduced SES gap among students with SLD as compared to TD children suggests that higher SES may be less protective for reading for children with SLD, and that the intersection of risk factors may lead to compounding disadvantages in early literacy. There was no interaction between SLD and SES in math achievement. Results underscore the need for early identification, prevention, and intervention, and indicate how the intersectionality of risks may have a varying impact across academic domains.
... With a prevalence rate of 5%-15% worldwide, SLD are probably the most well-recognized neurodevelopmental conditions characterized by severe and enduring difficulties in the acquisition of reading (i.e., dyslexia) and/or math (i.e., dyscalculia) and/or writing (i.e., dysorthographia) in presence of adequate instruction and intellectual abilities (21). Such difficulties usually increase levels of stress and frustration at school and affect self-esteem with the onset of emotional and behavioral difficulties (22)(23)(24)(25). During in-person learning, core difficulties of children and adolescents with SLD are mitigated to some extent by the implementation of individualized teaching and learning methods. ...
Background
The transition of teaching from in-person to Distance Learning (DL) due to the COVID-19 pandemic led to negative effects on students' psychological wellbeing and academic achievement. The worst consequences have been experienced by students with so-called special educational needs , as well as by their parents. However, very little emphasis has been placed on the effects of DL in students with Specific Learning Disorders (SLD). The present work aimed to evaluate the effects of DL during the COVID-19 lockdown in Italian students with SLD and in their parents.
Methods
An online survey was administered to 92 students with SLD and their parents after the COVID-19 lockdown. The survey consisted of four sections: participants' demographic information; perceived stress related to general aspects (i.e., social and family determinants) as well as specific aspects related to DL; attitudes and feelings toward DL; and academic grades before and after DL.
Results
Students with SLD perceived stress mainly from social isolation/distancing and DL ( p always ≤ 0.0001), especially from online classes and oral exams ( p always ≤ 0.0001). Students who did not benefit from appropriate accommodations (i.e., individualized teaching and learning methods) during DL perceived 3 times more DL-related stress than those who used them as in-person learning (OR = 3.00, CI 95%: 1.24–7.28, p = 0.015). Girls perceived more stress from online lessons (OR = 0.40, CI 95%: 0.16–0.96, p = 0.04) and use of devices (OR = 0.33, CI 95%: 0.14–0.80, p = 0.015) than boys. Negative feelings (less motivation, reduced ability to understand lessons, interact, and stay focused) and positive feelings (less anxiety and more self-confidence with its own rate of learning) toward DL emerged. Higher academic grades also was observed after DL ( p ≤ 0.0001). Lastly, strong and positive correlations emerged between students' and parents' perceived stress during DL ( p always < 0.001).
Implications
The present study prompts special considerations for students with special educational needs not only when providing conventional instruction, but especially when it is necessary to suddenly modify teaching approaches.
... Future efforts should attempt to provide academic and social-emotional supports in tandem, with a sensitivity to environmental influences on students' experiences with reading disabilities and their socio-affective sequelae. Given co-morbidities between reading disabilities and attentional issues, anxiety, depression, and other psychiatric conditions (Goldston et al., 2007;Hendren et al., 2018;Nelson & Harwood, 2011), and the effects of poverty and trauma (including racial trauma) on both reading and mental health, addressing emotional needs together with academic ones would be helpful to children. ...
Current conversations in literacy research call for the need to consider children’s social-emotional development and academic learning in an integrated way that honors and supports the whole child in their cultural context. Here we review available literatures on the cognitive, linguistic, affective, social and cultural dimensions of typical and atypical reading acquisition and what is known of their neural correlates. From this review, and in consultation with neuro- and psychological scientists and expert educators working in a range of contexts, we derive a series of interdisciplinary Learnings. These describe what is known about how diverse children grow into readers and how literacy development can be optimally supported in school, home and community contexts across the first decades of life. The Learnings together provide a critical cross-disciplinary synthesis of how literacy and social-emotional development are coordinated, individually variable, dynamic and sensitive to contextual influences. They reveal how evidence-based, culturally inclusive, socially attentive and developmentally appropriate instruction is an essential piece of helping every child organize their brain and mind for literacy. Such comprehensive instruction is necessary to address inequities in general and special education, and to help children become fully literate—a designation that goes beyond simply decoding and comprehending text. Impacts of digital technology, and other timely issues and open questions, are also discussed.
... Research has shown that the association can be attributed to both genetic and environmental factors [9]. Indeed, the association between LDs and mental illness varies across sex, age, and the presence of comorbidities. ...
... Further, symptoms of mental illness in adolescents and adults with LDs have been shown to increase with age [6], though the contrary was found in a meta-analysis that focused only on internalizing problems in adults [12]. The mental health of children and adolescents with LDs may be linked to whether they have co-occurring LDs or other types of mental illness [9,13,14]. Importantly, LDs are often comorbid with ADHD [5,14], though the effect of ADHD in the association between LDs and mental illness is inconsistent [15]. Comorbid LDs/ADHD have resulted in poorer mental health outcomes when compared with those with LDs alone [6,16]; yet, psychosocial factors, such as engagement in school/extracurricular activities, were partial mediators in the association between LDs/ADHD and risk-taking activities [17]. ...
... Adjusting for relevant covariates, there was no evidence to suggest a difference in psychological distress between emerging adults with vs. without LDs in the overall sample. This finding appears contrary to previous work demonstrating increased mental illness, including psychological distress, among those with LDs [6,9,12,22]. However, effect modification by age, sex, ADHD status, and impairment was evident across all adjusted models for both continuous K6 scores and dichotomized K6 scores, indicating clinically relevant psychological distress. ...
Individuals with learning disabilities (LDs) are more likely to have a mental illness, yet few studies explore this association in emerging adulthood, a developmental period with an increased risk for mental illness. The purpose of the current study was to investigate psychological distress in emerging adults (15–29 years) with and without LDs. The 2012 Canadian Community Health Survey—Mental Health was used (n = 5630), and multiple and logistic regression models with survey weights were computed. Adjusting for demographic, psychosocial, and health covariates, there was no evidence for significant differences in psychological distress among emerging adults with vs. without LDs. However, age and sex were significant effect modifiers. Among emerging adults with LDs, both males (OR = 2.39 [1.01, 5.67]) and those aged 25–29 years (OR = 3.87 [1.05, 14.30]) had an increased odds of clinically relevant psychological distress in comparison to those without LDs. These findings suggest a need for improved awareness and support for prevention of psychological distress among emerging adults with LDs, especially for males and those in later emerging adulthood.
