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... Firstly, the supply of some raw materials is increasingly difficult to meet the growing demand from electronics manufacturing, and concerns have been expressed about the future limitations on manufacturing based on the supply of valuable metals, precious metals, and rare metals (Gordon, Bertram, and Graedel 2006, Owens 2013, de Boer and Lammertsma 2013, Chancerel et al. 2015). For instance, a rapid exhaustion of already scarce natural elements is occurring, such as gallium (annual production of ~215 tons) and indium (annual production of ~1100 tons including recycling) both of which have an estimated availability of about 20 years until they will run out completely (Reuter et al. 2013, Izatt et al. 2014). Secondly, artisanal mining of e-waste to recover small amounts of precious metals has also expanded in developing countries, driving N o v a S c i e n c e P u b l i s h i n g , I n c . ...
... N o v a S c i e n c e P u b l i s h i n g , I n c . , Li, Gao, and Xu 2014, Duan, Hou, et al. 2011, Lundgren 2012, Lee et al. 2013, Sahajwalla et al. 2015, Kasper et al. 2015, Ghosh et al. 2015, Reuter et al. 2013, Lee, Song, and Yoo 2007, Wang and Xu 2014). Adapted with permission from (Li, Zeng, et al, 2015a)Smelting N o v a S c i e n c e P u b l i s h i n g , I n c . ...
... As clearly illustrated in Fig. 3and Table 1, Japan and China have been the two main REE magnet-producing countries, and in recent years, China has been by far the dominant magnet-producing country with about 80 % market share. According to the 2013 forecast in the UNEP report, the REO demand for REE magnet production will reach 36,000 tons, an equivalent of NdFeB magnet of approximately 99,500 tons [28]. However, the predicted figures for 2015 and 2016 may differ from the real demand and production significantly due to the weakened market demand in the recent years. ...
NdFeB permanent magnets have different life cycles, depending on the applications: from as short as 2–3 years in consumer electronics to 20–30 years in wind turbines. The size of the magnets ranges from less than 1 g in small consumer electronics to about 1 kg in electric vehicles (EVs) and hybrid and electric vehicles (HEVs), and can be as large as 1000–2000 kg in the generators of modern wind turbines. NdFeB permanent magnets contain about 31–32 wt% of rare-earth elements (REEs). Recycling of REEs contained in this type of magnets from the End-of-Life (EOL) products will play an important and complementary role in the total supply of REEs in the future. However, collection and recovery of the magnets from small consumer electronics imposes great social and technological challenges. This paper gives an overview of the sources of NdFeB permanent magnets related to their applications, followed by a summary of the various available technologies to recover the REEs from these magnets, including physical processing and separation, direct alloy production, and metallurgical extraction and recovery. At present, no commercial operation has been identified for recycling the EOL NdFeB permanent magnets and the recovery of the associated REE content. Most of the processing methods are still at various research and development stages. It is estimated that in the coming 10–15 years, the recycled REEs from EOL permanent magnets will play a significant role in the total REE supply in the magnet sector, provided that efficient technologies will be developed and implemented in practice.
... Innovations in the sensing and sorting of materials have greatly facilitated post-consumer recycling capabilities by allowing for a single stream process [35]. Allowing for single stream processing removes the burden of separating incompatible materials by the consumer, who is not always prepared to be the best steward of the materials that flow through their household systems (not just due to lack of education, but also due to the fast pace of change in the materials composition of consumer goods and the difficulty associated with recognizing materials composition from simple user inspection). ...
Materials sustainability requires a concerted change in philosophy across the entire materials lifecycle, orienting around the theme of materials stewardship. In this paper, we address the opportunities for improved materials conservation through dematerialization, durability, design for second life, and diversion of waste streams through industrial symbiosis.
... TVs, stereo systems, digital cameras, etc.). Given these WEEE categories, it is possible to classify the type of PCB embedded into these products [32]. In fact, Cat1 and Cat2 WEEE are known to embed low grade PCBs. ...
... By taking as reference the March 2014-March 2015 period, monthly observations are gathered from the most relevant websites dedicated on raw materials exchanges [41][42][43]. Initial assumptions about materials concentration are taken directly from scientific literature [32]. However, in order to better explain the effects of relevant variables changes, a sensitivity analysis is proposed in the next Section 4. Table 4 reports the nine products considered within the paper. ...
... In general, the authors [49,50] analyse WEEE by selecting specific categories (Cat 1, Cat 3 and Cat 4, in particular). Given these three categories, only three products are extensively assessed by the expertsand within this paperrepresenting the most cited ones [32]. This is due to a lack of data in the literature about the characterization of Cat2 WEEE [51,52]. ...
The management of waste electrical and electronic equipment (WEEE) is a well-stressed topic in the scientific literature. However, (i) the amount of cash flows potentially reachable, (ii) the future profitability trends and (iii) the reference mix of treated volumes guaranteeing a certain profitability level are not so clear, and related data are unrecoverable. The purpose of the paper is to fill in this gap by identifying the presence of profitability within the recovery process of waste printed circuit boards (WPCBs) embedded in WEEE. Net present value (NPV) and discounted payback time (DPBT) are used as reference indexes for the evaluation of investments. In addition, a sensitivity analysis of critical variables (plant saturation level, materials content, materials market prices, materials final purity level and WPCBs purchasing and opportunity costs) demonstrates the robustness of the results. Furthermore, the calculation of the national NPV for each of the twenty-eight European nations (in function of both WPCB mix and generated volumes) and the matching of predicted WPCB volumes (within the 2015–2030 period) and NPV quantify potential advantages. The break even point of gold allowing some profits from selected recovery plants goes from 73 to 93 ppm per WPCB ton, for mobile and field plants, respectively. Finally, the overall European values go from 2404 million € (mobile plant) to 4795 million € (field plant) in 2013, with Germany and United Kingdom as reference nations.
... Copper is a key enabler of resource efficiency [1]. Achieving resource efficiency [2] not only requires Best Available Techniques (BAT) but also a robust metallurgical infrastructure for the production of societal and technology elements that are key to enabling sustainability. ...
... To among others achieve this aim, we have produced the United Nations Environmental Programme (UNEP) " Metal Recycling Opportunities, Limits, Infrastructure " free downloadable " textbook " (as well as a derived policy booklet as well as an | 25 eBook). It has a strong copper thread through it to discuss, teach and make all walks of life aware of the importance of process metallurgy [1]. In summary: Copper and its deep metallurgical process and theoretical knowledge have a very important role to play in championing resource efficiency. ...
... The maximization of resource efficiency1234 is the underlying theme of this plenary lecture. The theoretical and technological depth and detail that are required to systemically fully understand resource efficiency in the context of material use and copper metal production both from primary as well as secondary resource is depicted byFigure 3. ...
Hydrometallurgical Processing of Jarosite Waste
Jarosite [typically of formula MFe3(SO4)2(OH)6, where M represents a metal cation (Na, K, Pb etc.) or ammonium] is industrially produced as leach residue from bulk metal treatments. Its most abundant source is electrolytic zinc production, which globally extends to 11-12 Mt/a, the respective jarosite amount being 5-6 Mt/a worldwide. Jarosite is typically compiled in the plant vicinity and within EU it is considered as problem waste.
While zinc ore typically is a carrier of many other metals, the content of both commercial and critical metals in such heaps is significant. The precipitation of jarosite will equally bind the minority metals present in the aqueous electrolyte solution into the M position. Thus, e.g. gallium and indium are readily precipitated in jarosite-type compounds often are present in significant amounts in jarosite heaps. The analysis of the typical jarosite stack shows content of zinc 2 %, lead up to 3 %, silver 150 g/t, gold 0,5 g/t, indium100 g/t and gallium 40 g/t. Iron content is at least 15 %. Such compositions are comparable with present day commercial ores.
Major research for utilising jarosite so far has been focussing on its uses as stabilised construction or landfilling component. Yet, as the stack necessarily contains but heavy metals also poisonous constituents (As, Cd), such developments have had but limited success. Thus, interest in reprocessing jarosite to recycled value added products has also been increasing during the last few years (UNEP, 2013). A hydrometallurgical route for recovering and recycling the metal contents of jarosite has been proposed earlier (Rastas et al., 1989, 1982). In the present work, a holistic operation consisting of low cost and energy efficient techniques is targeted for the recovery of concentrates which then will bear the major value-added metal contents
Rare earth elements (REEs) provide important properties to clean energy technologies such as wind turbine and hybrid electric vehicles. The global REE demand will grow rapidly during the global transformation toward a greener economy in the next decades. This high demand will require a steady supply chain in the long run. China has a monopoly of global REE production and extraction. The global REE supply chain runs the risk of disruption along with Chinese REE policy evolution. To overcome this supply chain vulnerability, new strategies and measures should be adopted to satisfy future REE supply/demand. There is a pressing need to explore REE deposits, develop efficient REE recycling techniques from end-of-life products, improve substitution technologies for REEs, and reduce the number of critical REEs used in devices. Such measures are facing significant challenges due to environmental factors and an unbalanced market, and overcoming them requires efforts from government and REE companies.
Metals enable sustainability through their use and their recyclability. However, various factors can affect the Resource Efficiency of Metal Processing and Recycling. Some typical factors that enable Resource Efficiency include and arranged under the drivers of sustainability: Environment (Maximize Resource Efficiency — Energy, Recyclates, Materials, Water, Sludges, Emissions, Land); Economic Feasibility (BAT & Recycling Systems Simulation / Digitalization, Product vis-à-vis Material Centric Recycling); and Social — Licence to Operate (Legislation, consumer, policy, theft, manual labour.). In order to realize this primary production has to be linked systemically with typical actors in the recycling chain such as Original Equipment Manufacturers (OEMs), Recyclers & Collection, Physical separation specialists as well as process metallurgical operations that produce high value metals, compounds and products that recycle back to products. This is best done with deep knowledge of multi-physics, technology, product & system design, process control, market, life cycle management, policy, to name a few. The combination of these will be discussed as Design for Sustainability (DfS) and Design for Recycling (DfR) applications.
Waste electrical and electronic equipment (e-waste) is the most rapidly growing waste stream in the world, and the majority of the residues are openly disposed of in developing countries. Waste printed circuit boards (WPCBs) make up the major portion of e-waste, and their informal recycling can cause environmental pollution and health risks. Furthermore, the conventional disposal and recycling techniques?mechanical treatments used to recover valuable metals, including copper?are not sustainable in the long term. Chemical leaching is rapid and efficient but causes secondary pollution. Bioleaching is a promising approach, eco-friendly and economically feasible, but it is slower process. This review considers the recycling potential of microbes and suggests an integrated bioleaching approach for Cu extraction and recovery from WPCBs. The proposed recycling system should be more effective, efficient and both technically and economically feasible.
