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The aim of this paper is to gain better understanding of the way map users read and interpret the visual stimuli presented to them and how this can be influenced. In particular, the difference between expert and novice map users is considered. In a user study, the participants studied four screen maps which had been manipulated to introduce deviati...
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... participants just had to indicate when they were ready. Hence, they would need to use (retrieve) the stored information again. In order to be able to use this information later on, it has to be stored in (working and long-term) memory in the form of chunks of information (or sche- mata) which are linked to other information stored in the LTM. This requires that the objects are read, recognized, and interpreted (given meaning) (see above). The process of “ remembering the map – drawing the map ” was repeated four times. After the completion of the fourth trial, participants were asked to fi ll out a questionnaire. This post-study questionnaire was used to obtain personal characteristics (expertise, age, gender, etc.) to verify their familiarity with the presented regions, and to receive feedback. In this paper, we did not test users ’ memory perfor- mance; this was done in Ooms et al. (forthcoming). We were interested in fi nding out where (and how) they looked at stimuli (or maps), namely how information is retrieved, how is it structured, and how much is retrieved. Thinking aloud, sketch maps and a questionnaire were used to study the information retrieval process. These fi ndings con fi rm that the participants would have had interpreted the information on the maps. Four maps from the Belgian 1:10,000 topographic map series were displayed on screen during the user study. The selected maps were not crowded with information but some obvious structures were visible (roads, rivers, forests, etc.), and the region is not well known. The per- centage of the map covered with large uniform areas such as forests and meadows was an important criterion. All selected maps had a coverage of more than 75% for these two types of land use (48.4% and 36.7%, 73.6% and 14.0%, 50.7% and 25.6%; meadow and forest coverage, respectively, in map 1, map 4, map 2, and map 3). Familiarity with a certain area in fl uences the interpretation process and should be avoided. The participants all live in the northern part of Belgium (Flanders), but the selected maps cover regions located in the southern part. Therefore, it is unlikely that the participants would know the depicted regions by heart. The post-study questionnaire con fi rmed this. The four maps were displayed in the same order to each participant. This fi xed order was necessary to ensure that certain stimuli (map 1 and map 4) would not be depicted right after each other. Figure 2 shows fi ve maps, even though only four were presented to the participants. This is due to a variation introduced with the third stimulus, which was only shown to half of the participants. Six experts and six novices saw map 3 in its normal orientation; the others saw the map mirrored over its vertical central axis. This allows detecting whether the users ’ scanpaths – which result from the interpretation process for this map – would also be mirrored. As can be seen in Figure 2, map 4 is a mirrored version of map 1; this time over the horizontal central axis. Each participant saw both the original map and the mirrored version, separated by two other stimuli (map 2 and map 3a or map 3b). This would provide insights into how familiarity, due to the mirrored map image, in fl uences the map interpretation process. Mirroring of map images (e.g., map 1 vs. map 4 and the two versions of map 3) is done at random. Both map 1 and map 4 were shown to all users so that they may see the in fl uence of (controlled) familiarity which is linked to both bottom-up and top- down processing. The content of map 3 was only depicted once (mainly bottom-up processing), ruling out the familiarity element. In both cases however, we can compare the users ’ eye movements (e.g., scanpaths). Finally, the second topographic map (map 2) is characterized by a deviating use of colors to depict water bodies and village backgrounds. The hue of both original colors (cyan and light yellow) has been changed over 180° into a light orange and purple respectively. When a cartographer wants to improve the design (symbology) of a map, he has to alter something in it (e.g., the color scheme). To map users, this is a deviation to what they are familiar with. It is thus important to know how users react during the interpretation process to such deviations. We chose to adapt the color for the village background and water bodies because these elements are present on all displayed maps. The map with the deviating color was used in the second trial, that is, after all participants (novices and experts) had already seen a map with a “ normal ” color scheme. For those participants who may have been familiar with the color scheme of the 1:10,000 topographic map used in Belgium, deviations from the familiar color scheme could distract or confuse users and thus in fl uence the interpretation process. It is for this reason that participants were asked in the post-study questionnaire to indicate their level of familiarity with Belgian topographic maps drawn at 1:10,000. Its results con fi rmed that most experts used such maps on a regular basis, whereas the novices did not, which could in fl uence their reaction to deviations in the map design (color use). The participants eye movements were recorded using an EyeLink1000 eye tracking device from SR Research (Mississauga, Ontario, Canada) installed at the eye tracking laboratory of the Department of Experimental Psychology at Ghent University. This desk-mounted device with a chin rest can sample a user ’ s POR at a rate of 1000 Hz. The maps were presented on a 21 inch ...
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... participants just had to indicate when they were ready. Hence, they would need to use (retrieve) the stored information again. In order to be able to use this information later on, it has to be stored in (working and long-term) memory in the form of chunks of information (or sche- mata) which are linked to other information stored in the LTM. This requires that the objects are read, recognized, and interpreted (given meaning) (see above). The process of “ remembering the map – drawing the map ” was repeated four times. After the completion of the fourth trial, participants were asked to fi ll out a questionnaire. This post-study questionnaire was used to obtain personal characteristics (expertise, age, gender, etc.) to verify their familiarity with the presented regions, and to receive feedback. In this paper, we did not test users ’ memory perfor- mance; this was done in Ooms et al. (forthcoming). We were interested in fi nding out where (and how) they looked at stimuli (or maps), namely how information is retrieved, how is it structured, and how much is retrieved. Thinking aloud, sketch maps and a questionnaire were used to study the information retrieval process. These fi ndings con fi rm that the participants would have had interpreted the information on the maps. Four maps from the Belgian 1:10,000 topographic map series were displayed on screen during the user study. The selected maps were not crowded with information but some obvious structures were visible (roads, rivers, forests, etc.), and the region is not well known. The per- centage of the map covered with large uniform areas such as forests and meadows was an important criterion. All selected maps had a coverage of more than 75% for these two types of land use (48.4% and 36.7%, 73.6% and 14.0%, 50.7% and 25.6%; meadow and forest coverage, respectively, in map 1, map 4, map 2, and map 3). Familiarity with a certain area in fl uences the interpretation process and should be avoided. The participants all live in the northern part of Belgium (Flanders), but the selected maps cover regions located in the southern part. Therefore, it is unlikely that the participants would know the depicted regions by heart. The post-study questionnaire con fi rmed this. The four maps were displayed in the same order to each participant. This fi xed order was necessary to ensure that certain stimuli (map 1 and map 4) would not be depicted right after each other. Figure 2 shows fi ve maps, even though only four were presented to the participants. This is due to a variation introduced with the third stimulus, which was only shown to half of the participants. Six experts and six novices saw map 3 in its normal orientation; the others saw the map mirrored over its vertical central axis. This allows detecting whether the users ’ scanpaths – which result from the interpretation process for this map – would also be mirrored. As can be seen in Figure 2, map 4 is a mirrored version of map 1; this time over the horizontal central axis. Each participant saw both the original map and the mirrored version, separated by two other stimuli (map 2 and map 3a or map 3b). This would provide insights into how familiarity, due to the mirrored map image, in fl uences the map interpretation process. Mirroring of map images (e.g., map 1 vs. map 4 and the two versions of map 3) is done at random. Both map 1 and map 4 were shown to all users so that they may see the in fl uence of (controlled) familiarity which is linked to both bottom-up and top- down processing. The content of map 3 was only depicted once (mainly bottom-up processing), ruling out the familiarity element. In both cases however, we can compare the users ’ eye movements (e.g., scanpaths). Finally, the second topographic map (map 2) is characterized by a deviating use of colors to depict water bodies and village backgrounds. The hue of both original colors (cyan and light yellow) has been changed over 180° into a light orange and purple respectively. When a cartographer wants to improve the design (symbology) of a map, he has to alter something in it (e.g., the color scheme). To map users, this is a deviation to what they are familiar with. It is thus important to know how users react during the interpretation process to such deviations. We chose to adapt the color for the village background and water bodies because these elements are present on all displayed maps. The map with the deviating color was used in the second trial, that is, after all participants (novices and experts) had already seen a map with a “ normal ” color scheme. For those participants who may have been familiar with the color scheme of the 1:10,000 topographic map used in Belgium, deviations from the familiar color scheme could distract or confuse users and thus in fl uence the interpretation process. It is for this reason that participants were asked in the post-study questionnaire to indicate their level of familiarity with Belgian topographic maps drawn at 1:10,000. Its results con fi rmed that most experts used such maps on a regular basis, whereas the novices did not, which could in fl uence their reaction to deviations in the map design (color use). The participants eye movements were recorded using an EyeLink1000 eye tracking device from SR Research (Mississauga, Ontario, Canada) installed at the eye tracking laboratory of the Department of Experimental Psychology at Ghent University. This desk-mounted device with a chin rest can sample a user ’ s POR at a rate of 1000 Hz. The maps were presented on a 21 inch ...
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... While map-viewing in general is being explored in various contexts through eye-tracking, aiming to answer a wide range of research questions [5][6][7][8][9][10][11][12], we know little about how people specifically look at world maps, particularly those visualising climate change. This gap can be surprising given how much the behavioural sciences have contributed to climate science communication by measuring public perceptions and attitudes toward the crisis, and how many recommendations for improving visualisations they have made over the years [1,13,14], along with improving textual contents [15]. ...
Many visualisations used in the climate communication field aim to present the scientific models of climate change to the public. However, relatively little research has been conducted on how such data are visually processed, particularly from a behavioural science perspective. This study examines trends in visual attention to climate change predictions in world maps using mobile eye-tracking while participants engage with the visualisations. Our primary aim is to assess engagement with the maps, as indicated by gaze metrics. Secondary analyses assess whether social context (as social viewing compared to solitary viewing) affects these trends, the relationship between projection types and visual attention, compare gaze metrics between scientific map and artwork viewing, and explore correlations between self-reported climate anxiety scores and attention patterns. We employed wearable, head-mounted eye-tracking to collect data in relatively naturalistic conditions, aiming to enhance ecological validity. In this research, participants engaged with ten world maps displaying near- and far-term climate projections across five data categories, adapted from the online interactive atlas provided by the International Panel on Climate Change (IPCC). To compare scientific information processing with aesthetic perception, participants also viewed two large-scale artworks. Responses to the Climate Change Anxiety Scale (CCAS) were also collected. Participants viewed the displays alone (single-viewing condition, N = 35) or together with a partner (paired-viewing condition, N = 12). Results revealed that the upper parts of the maps, particularly the continental Europe, received significant attention, suggesting a Euro-centric bias in viewing patterns. Spatial gaze patterns were similar between single and paired conditions, indicating that the visual attributes of the maps predominantly shaped attention locations. Although dwell times were comparable, the paired condition showed higher fixation counts, shorter average fixation durations, and longer scanpaths, suggesting a potentially dissociable viewing strategy and more exploratory viewing patterns influenced by social interaction. No substantial differences were observed in attention across projection timeframes or types, although individual variations were noted. Artwork viewing exhibited notably shorter average fixation durations compared to climate map viewing, potentially reflecting different visual engagement styles. Despite positive linear correlations among the four CCAS subscales, there was no apparent correlation between CCAS scores and main gaze metrics, indicating a lack of a direct relationship between self-reported anxiety and gaze behaviour. In summary, visual attention to climate change visualisations appears to be mainly influenced by the inherent visual attributes of the maps, but the social context may subtly influence visual attention. Additionally, the comparison with aesthetic viewing highlights relatively distinct attentional patterns in scientific versus aesthetic engagements.
... These findings, coupled with similar studies [32][33][34][35], indicate that the pattern of image viewing differs as students acquire the ability to identify areas of interest crucial for result interpretation. Accordingly, some studies advocate for the use of eye-tracking data to showcase the gaze replay of experienced students to aid novice students in learning to comprehend and interpret texts and images [5,6,36,37]. ...
Integrating neuroscience techniques, such as eye tracking, into educational practices has opened new avenues for understanding the cognitive processes underlying learning. This study investigates the feasibility and practicality of using eye tracking as a supportive tool for educators in primary school settings. By taking into account eye-tracking features in lesson plans and instruction, this study explores the benefits and challenges of this technology from teachers’ perspective. The findings reveal that eye tracking can enhance interactivity, maintain student attention, and provide immediate feedback, thereby aiding in identifying student difficulties that may otherwise go unnoticed. However, the study also highlights concerns related to technical complexities, data privacy, and the need for teacher training to utilize and interpret eye-tracking data effectively. These insights contribute to a nuanced understanding of how eye-tracking technology can be implemented in educational settings, offering potential pathways for personalized teaching and improved learning outcomes.
... User experience influences a more effective interpretation of the map, as shown by the research of Ooms et al. (2012Ooms et al. ( , 2014. Users with more experience in the subject matter of the study are better able to process spatial and visual information. ...
... Prior knowledge and habits facilitate the interpretation of complex visual stimuli. The study by Ooms et al. (2012Ooms et al. ( , 2014 was conducted with groups of 31 people (16 experts and 15 novices) and 24 people (12 experts and 12 novices). Indicators such as: faster reaction time, shorter fixation duration, higher number of fixations show the advantage of a more effective interpretation of the map by experienced users. ...
... User experience influences a more effective interpretation of the map, as shown in research by Ooms et al. (2012Ooms et al. ( , 2014. Users with more experience in the subject matter of the study are better able to process spatial and visual information. ...
This article examines the significance of the world map in video games for the interpretation of spatial situations. An example is the popular role-playing game The Witcher 3: Wild Hunt (TW3). Nowadays, most video games are characterized by the presence of a spatial aspect. The game world map is the most important navigational element of the game that the gamer can use. To this end, the authors decided to test the importance of the game world map in the context of analyzing different examples of spatial situations that appear in TW3 by the respondents. Eye movement tracking was chosen as the research method. The analysis was conducted using statistical tests. Both gamers and non-gamers of TW3, gamers and non-gamers in general, participated in the survey. Each subject was shown 5 movies (1 introductory movie, 4 movies in the main part of the study) from the gameplay of the game, in which the game world map was opened. After each video, a question was asked about both the gameplay and the game world map. It was found that familiarity with TW3, frequency of playing video games influenced the correctness and time of answering the questions asked. In addition, by analyzing mean pupil diameter it was found that the game world map and gameplay segments do not cognitively burden the users. By analyzing the duration of fixations and the number of fixations, differences in visual strategy were observed between the groups of test subjects.
... Such a procedure makes it possible to compare different groups of respondents later on. One of the ways to divide the respondents is based on the distinction of groups: experts, i.e. people who have knowledge in a given subject area or have experience in using the product being researched, and novices, who have never or only had minimal contact with the research subject (Ooms et al., 2012(Ooms et al., , 2013. The second possibility is to divide the respondents according to differences in the rules of the study or differences in the presentation of the content. ...
The article analyzes and evaluates the usefulness of heatmaps in research on maps in video games in the context of comparing groups of subjects who differ, for example, in their knowledge or experience of a given mapping product. Fixations heatmaps are maps that show the intensity of fixation locations using colors. Intuitively, warm colors indicate high intensity of the number of fixations in a specific area. The colder the color, the lower the intensity, and the absence of color means not looking in a specific area. Heatmaps of the number of fixations generated after conducting a study of the game world map from The Witcher 3: Wild Hunt video game was used as an example. The study compared gamers and non-gamers of The Witcher 3: Wild Hunt. Two research questions were asked about what similarities and differences between the groups of respondents can be determined from the heatmaps and what are the advantages and disadvantages of using heatmaps in research on maps in video games.
... Аналогичным образом в другом исследовании было изучено состояние навыков чтения карт у молодых людей посредством пользовательского исследования с участием школьников и студентов-географов, целью которого было оценить их картографические навыки с использованием топографических карт [68]. Кроме того, исследование обращает внимание на статус навыков чтения карт у молодых людей, особенно с учётом их ежедневного взаимодействия с картографическими технологиями. ...
... Движения глаз при чтении карт влияют на точность и эффективность действий людей [58]. Новички и опытные пользователи карт демонстрируют различные модели внимательного поведения при интерпретации карт, что подтверждает важность опыта и обучения для развития навыков чтения карт [68]. Преподаватели исследовали инновационные методы обучения, такие как использование цифровых карт связей, чтобы улучшить навыки критического чтения и когнитивные способности учащихся при интерпретации карт [74]. ...
The formation of cartographic competence is an urgent task of higher geographical education.
The purpose of the study is to review current trends, summarize the results of research available in the literature, characterize the subject field of cartographic competence research and identify gaps in scientific knowledge regarding cartographic competence.
To achieve it, the following tasks were solved: to reveal the essence of the concept of “cartographic competence” and the concepts of “cartographic literacy” close to it, “skills of reading geographical maps”, “spatial thinking”; based on the analysis of the literature, identify the most researched issues and gaps in scientific knowledge in the field of cartographic competence; identify promising areas for further research. A review of research on the formation of cartographic competence was conducted on the basis of analysis and meta-analysis methods according to the PRISMA 2020 criteria by sampling literature by keywords.
Research results: a review of research on the definitions of the concept of “cartographic competence” and related concepts was carried out; the most researched problems of cartographic competence and empirical data obtained within the framework of this topic were identified; gaps existing in scientific knowledge were identified; the most promising areas of further research in the field of cartographic competence were identified.
... Although the number of participants (n = 31) generally aligns with many other eye tracking experiments in cartography and GIScience (e.g., [51][52][53][54]), researchers should be careful when interpreting the findings due to the possibility of statistical fluctuations caused by the small sample size. In addition, the limited sample size could decrease the robustness of the results. ...
Raster maps provide intuitive visualizations of remote sensing data representing various phenomena on the Earth’s surface. Reading raster maps with intricate information requires a high cognitive workload, especially when it is necessary to identify and compare values between multiple layers. In traditional methods, users need to repeatedly move their mouse and switch their visual focus between the map content and legend to interpret various grid value meanings. Such methods are ineffective and may lead to the loss of visual context for users. In this research, we aim to explore the potential benefits and drawbacks of gaze-adaptive interactions when interpreting raster maps. We focus on the usability of the use of low-cost eye trackers on gaze-based interactions. We designed two gaze-adaptive methods, gaze fixed and gaze dynamic adaptations, for identifying and comparing raster values between multilayers. In both methods, the grid content of different layers is adaptively adjusted depending on the user’s visual focus. We then conducted a user experiment by comparing such adaptation methods with a mouse dynamic adaptation method and a traditional method. Thirty-one participants (n = 31) were asked to complete a series of single-layer identification and multilayer comparison tasks. The results indicated that although gaze interaction with adaptive legends confused participants in single-layer identification, it improved multilayer comparison efficiency and effectiveness. The gaze-adaptive approach was well received by the participants overall, but was also perceived to be distracting and insensitive. By analyzing the participants’ eye movement data, we found that different methods exhibited significant differences in visual behaviors. The results are helpful for gaze-driven adaptation research in (geo)visualization in the future.
... Thus, it is clear that although the teacher has his/her own conception of map skills and tries to apply this conception in teaching , with regard to the intellectual abilities and previous experience, it is not possible to regard the problem-solving strategies of the student and their teacher with the school atlas as the same (cf. also Postigo and Pozo 2004;Ooms et al. 2014). ...
The aim of this research study is to compare the procedures for solving geographical problems with printed and digital cartographic products. These documents are used in various areas of society, including regional development or visual communication in the media. A total of 27 probands participated in the research. Individuals were randomly divided into two groups, one group working with a printed atlas and the other with a digital atlas in the same version. Respondents were tested using stationary and wearable eye-trackers while completing a didactic test to determine different levels of map skills. The results of the research showed that although the procedures and the success rate for solving the different tasks did not differ between the two groups of respondents, the differences were mainly in the time needed for the solution and in the satisfaction in the use of a given type of cartographic work.
... However, experience and expertise in a particular domain can influence task performance and make it less sensitive to individual differences in spatial abilities (Hegarty et al., 2009;Keehner et al., 2004;Woollett & Maguire, 2010;Woollett et al., 2009). In addition, experts are more efficient at guiding their visual attention to task-relevant features and thus are less distracted by task-irrelevant information (Lanini- Maggi et al., 2021;Ooms et al., 2014). Furthermore, they are trained to endure the cognitive demands of the task, in contrast to non-experts (Lanini- Maggi, 2017). ...
... Specifically, in Study II, wayfinders with low spatial abilities produced longer fixations on the environment when they navigated with realistic 3D landmarks. This finding agrees with previous empirical evidence that wayfinders with low spatial abilities generally require more navigation assistance (Hegarty et al., 2006;Ishikawa, 2022Ishikawa, , 2018 -and, specifically, more assistance in modulating visual attention to task-relevant features -compared to wayfinders with higher spatial ability, who can modulate their attention independently of the task and in the presence of extraneous information (Lanini- Maggi, 2017;Lanini-Maggi et al., 2021;Maggi et al., 2016;Ooms et al., 2014). Contrary to previous research demonstrating that low-spatial-ability wayfinders rely more on mobile map aids which, in turn, further degrade their spatial learning capabilities (Dahmani & Bohbot, 2020;Ishikawa, 2019;Ruginski et al., 2019), the visual attention of wayfinders with low spatial abilities in the present thesis was guided towards the traversed environment. ...
Even though they are day-to-day activities, humans find navigation and wayfinding to be cognitively challenging. To facilitate their everyday mobility, humans increasingly rely on ubiquitous mobile maps as navigation aids. However, the over-reliance on and habitual use of omnipresent navigation aids deteriorate humans' short-term ability to learn new information about their surroundings and induces a long-term decline in spatial skills. This deterioration in spatial learning is attributed to the fact that these aids capture users' attention and cause them to enter a passive navigation mode. Another factor that limits spatial learning during map-aided navigation is the lack of salient landmark information on mobile maps.
Prior research has already demonstrated that wayfinders rely on landmarks—geographic features that stand out from their surroundings—to facilitate navigation and build a spatial representation of the environments they traverse. Landmarks serve as anchor points and help wayfinders to visually match the spatial information depicted on the mobile map with the information collected during the active exploration of the environment. Considering the acknowledged significance of landmarks for human wayfinding due to their visibility and saliency, this thesis investigates an open research question: how to graphically communicate landmarks on mobile map aids to cue wayfinders' allocation of attentional resources to these task-relevant environmental features. From a cartographic design perspective, landmarks can be depicted on mobile map aids on a graphical continuum ranging from abstract 2D text labels to realistic 3D buildings with high visual fidelity. Based on the importance of landmarks for human wayfinding and the rich cartographic body of research concerning their depiction on mobile maps, this thesis investigated how various landmark visualization styles affect the navigation process of two user groups (expert and general wayfinders) in different navigation use contexts (emergency and general navigation tasks). Specifically, I conducted two real-world map-aided navigation studies to assess the influence of various landmark visualization styles on wayfinders' navigation performance, spatial learning, allocation of visual attention, and cognitive load.
In Study I, I investigated how depicting landmarks as abstract 2D building footprints or realistic 3D buildings on the mobile map affected expert wayfinders' navigation performance, visual attention, spatial learning, and cognitive load during an emergency navigation task. I asked expert navigators recruited from the Swiss Armed Forces to follow a predefined route using a mobile map depicting landmarks as either abstract 2D building footprints or realistic 3D buildings and to identify the depicted task-relevant landmarks in the environment. I recorded the experts' gaze behavior with a mobile eye-tracer and their cognitive load with EEG during the navigation task, and I captured their incidental spatial learning at the end of the task. The wayfinding experts' exhibited high navigation performance and low cognitive load during the map-aided navigation task regardless of the landmark visualization style. Their gaze behavior revealed that wayfinding experts navigating with realistic 3D landmarks focused more on the visualizations of landmarks on the mobile map than those who navigated with abstract 2D landmarks, while the latter focused more on the depicted route. Furthermore, when the experts focused for longer on the environment and the landmarks, their spatial learning improved regardless of the landmark visualization style. I also found that the spatial learning of experts with self-reported low spatial abilities improved when they navigated with landmarks depicted as realistic 3D buildings.
In Study II, I investigated the influence of abstract and realistic 3D landmark visualization styles on wayfinders sampled from the general population. As in Study I, I investigated wayfinders' navigation performance, visual attention, spatial learning, and cognitive load. In contrast to Study I, the participants in Study II were exposed to both landmark visualization styles in a navigation context that mimics everyday navigation. Furthermore, the participants were informed that their spatial knowledge of the environment would be tested after navigation. As in Study I, the wayfinders in Study II exhibited high navigation performance and low cognitive load regardless of the landmark visualization style. Their visual attention revealed that wayfinders with low spatial abilities and wayfinders familiar with the study area fixated on the environment longer when they navigated with realistic 3D landmarks on the mobile map. Spatial learning improved when wayfinders with low spatial abilities were assisted by realistic 3D landmarks. Also, when wayfinders were assisted by realistic 3D landmarks and paid less attention to the map aid, their spatial learning improved.
Taken together, the present real-world navigation studies provide ecologically valid results on the influence of various landmark visualization styles on wayfinders. In particular, the studies demonstrate how visualization style modulates wayfinders' visual attention and facilitates spatial learning across various user groups and navigation use contexts. Furthermore, the results of both studies highlight the importance of individual differences in spatial abilities as predictors of spatial learning during map-assisted navigation. Based on these findings, the present work provides design recommendations for future mobile maps that go beyond the traditional concept of "one fits all." Indeed, the studies support the cause for landmark depiction that directs individual wayfinders' visual attention to task-relevant landmarks to further enhance spatial learning. This would be especially helpful for users with low spatial skills. In doing so, future mobile maps could dynamically adapt the visualization style of landmarks according to wayfinders' spatial abilities for cued visual attention, thus meeting individuals' spatial learning needs.
... The time to the first fixation of an area can indicate the saliency of that area (Dong et al., 2018;Goldberg & Kotval, 1999). The total fixation duration is the sum of the duration of all fixations, and the duration of fixation on an area can provide insight into the difficulties of interpreting the information (Ooms et al., 2014). We drew areas of interest (AOIs) for YAH symbols, subway station layout maps, and scene photos for each stimulus ( Figure 6) and calculated the total fixation duration inside different AOIs. ...
... The influence of layout maps might come from map complexity (Liao et al., 2019) and map colors (Brychtova, 2015). The fixation duration ratio of map AOI in scene 5 was significantly higher than that of scene 1-3, which pointed out that participants spent more time interpreting map information (Ooms et al., 2014). But the map of scene 5 had much fewer signs than that of scene 1-3 (Table 1), which indicated that scene 5 did not have an advantage in map complexity. ...
The indoor layout map contains information about the architectural interior space. Users often utilize the You-Are-Here (YAH) symbol on maps to firstly determine their current location and orientation to find the direction of a target location. Circle symbols often seen only indicate a user’s location, making it difficult to complete the orientation process. Based on alignment effect theory, we modified symbols by adding current orientation information. We conducted a target orientation experiment using eye-tracking technology to examine whether symbol modification positively affected users’ orientating performance in virtual subway station scenes on desktop. The results indicated that participants in the modified symbol group achieved a higher accuracy within a shorter time in orientation tasks. We also found that modified symbols significantly reduced users’ visual reliance on environmental information. Another experiment, in order to further investigate the role of YAH symbols in maps of different complexity, indicated that our modified symbol achieved obvious improvements regardless of map complexity. These findings revealed that the modified symbols indeed improved the convenience of orientation and the overall usability of indoor layout maps.
... For such studies, participants must be grouped based on an initial questionnaire or pre-testing procedures, prior to testing of map interaction using eye-tracking. This is one example of the preferred 'mixed-methods' approach to user testing (Dogusoy-Taylan & Cagiltay, 2014;Keskin et al., 2020;Ooms et al., 2012;Ooms et al., 2014;Ooms et al., 2015). In a related study which concentrated more on differences in stimuli (in this case varying legend design) than on differences in user groups, Çöltekin et al. (2017) identified that participants' prior knowledge of soils and their varying map interpretation abilities led to interesting performance differences between two distinctly differently designed legend types, one based on named categories, the other based on perceptual colour spaces. ...
This overview paper summarises the ‘state of the art and of the science’ of eye-tracking, and its applications in map use research. Cartographic research is introduced, and its contemporary direction, which indicates that the main areas of such research are now focussed on human beings and their interaction with maps and geospatial displays, is stressed. A brief outline of several different methodologies for map use research is presented: observation, thinking loud, keyboard analysis, eye-tracking, and questionnaires. The role of eye-tracking as a major methodology for use, user, and usability investigation is explored; along with the possible choices for the researcher in the important areas of participant selection, eye-tracking equipment, set-up and use of the testing environment, and analysis of output data. Typical outcomes from eye tracking research are considered, with an assessment of its value in cartographic research in general. Future directions are suggested, along with the need for cartography to promote the valuable work done by researchers using eye-tracking for map use studies to the wider human-computer interaction community, expanding the scope of the geospatial-based stimuli in such experiments beyond maps, making use of the significant expertise and enthusiasm of cartographic researchers.
