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Ice Towers over Fumaroles at the Erebus Caldera, Antarctica. Some spires are over 2 meters high, consisting of ice derived from mostly recycled non-magmatic surface or subsurface waters. Fumarolic activity at Erebus is continuous and intensified during periods of volcanic eruptions (1841, 1900 (?), 1908, 1911, 1912, 1915, 1947, 1955, 1963, and 1972–1984). These dates as shown in the literature have been verified. Photo courtesy of Dr. E. Stump, Arizona State University.
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Water ice has been discovered on the moon by radar backscatter at the North Pole and by spectrometry at the South Pole in the Cabeus crater with an extrapolated volume for both poles of conservatively 10⁹ metric tons. Various exogenic and endogenic sources of this water have been proposed. This paper focuses on endogenic water sources by fumaroles...
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... choose to emphasize the two most important discoveries of water on the moon while acknowledging those of Prospector and Clementine. The first major discovery was by the Chandrayaan 1–mini-SAR mission from mid-February to mid-April, 2009 was based on backscattered radar signals from the north lunar pole, mid-February to mid-April, 2009 (Spudis et al .) [1]. Based on information in the Spudis et al. article as reported by NASA in March 2010 the volume of water discovered in the lunar north pole using radar backscatter of circular polarization ratios was estimated to be 600 million metric tons of water ice. Circular polarization ratio is defined as the ratio of the power of the received radar signal in the same sense (same sense circular) to that of the opposite sense as transmitted (SS/OS) during the LCROSS mission to the south lunar pole, spectroscopic analysis of the impact plume from the Cabeus crater showed 155 kg of water and other constituents. The LCROSS reference is a lengthy multi-authored section in science, vol. 330, 22 October 2009 listing some 75 authors or co-authors. We extrapolate the total lunar water in inventory of both the north and south poles to be 9 10 metric tons of water ice. This may be a conservative estimate because the total area of shadowed polar craters of the moon is 1000 square kilometers exclusive of an unknown volume of hydrothermally altered rocks at depth. What is the origin of this water? We believe the water was delivered to the lunar poles by defluidization processes (Rubey) [2] and not by comets. Defluidization is defined as the release of fluids from the interior of a cosmic body to the exterior. In order to elaborate on the fundamental process of defluidization, a crater similar to Cabeus on the Moon is a similar crater Erebus that exists at the south pole of the Earth in Antarctica. A fumarole is a volcanic gas or fluid vent. Low temperature fumaroles may grade into hot springs (LeMasurier and Wade) [3]. The Erebus caldera in Antarctica produced multiple eruptions of the associated fumarole field building up fumarolic spires or towers some 3 meters tall (Figure 1). The ice in these towers would logically consist of isotopically lighter constituents because of multiple cycles of evaporation and precipitation of these lighter constituents. However, carbon dioxide gases emanate from these fumaroles. Wardell et al. [4] have analyzed carbon dioxide gases from within the ice towers. The isotopic composition of CO 2 from these towers measures −2.1 to −4.7 parts per mil and leads to the identification of a magmatic origin of the CO 2 or a present-day miniature defluidization system. From a larger viewpoint, volcanism is the “skin” effect of defluidization. Was the water delivered to the lunar poles by the impact of meteorites or comets? Water is required for volcanic processes. Water is also required for life processes. The second objective of this article is to show how water would be integral in the evolution of protolife in lunar shadow zones. We define protolife as the evolution of fumarolic fluids into organic molecules via lipids, biofilms, clay/pyrite templates, catalysts such as tungsto-enzymes, and soluble volcanic polyphosphates into pre-RNA molecules, to RNA ...
Citations
... In 2008, the LCROSS and LRO cooperated to impact the moon. Thermal imaging, near-infrared spectroscopy, ultraviolet spectroscopy and other technologies were used to identify water vapor in the impact sputtering, which proved the existence of water ice on the moon [14]. In 2010, the Mini-star radar, developed by NASA and carried on Luna I in India, detected more than 40 craters containing water ice in the north lunar pole, with an estimated content of~600 million tons of water ice [15]. ...
The frozen ground robot can be widely and prospectively applied in plentiful fields, such as military rescue and planet exploration. Based on the energy-saving, load-bearing, and attachment functions of reindeer hooves, we studied the kinematics of reindeer feet and designed a biomimetic energy-saving attachment mechanical foot (mechanical foot I) and two contrast mechanical feet (mechanical feet II and III). The energy-saving and load-bearing performances of the biomimetic mechanical foot were tested on a motion mechanics platform, which revealed this mechanical foot was adaptive to three types of ground (frozen ground, ice, and water ice lunar soil). Mechanical foot I possesses the functions of elastic energy storage and power consumption reduction, and its power range is from -2.77 to -27.85 W. Compared with mechanical foot III, the load-bearing ability of mechanical foot I was improved by the dewclaws, and the peak forces in the X, Y, and Z directions increased by about 2.54, 1.25 and 1.31 times, respectively. When mechanical foot I acted with more- smooth surface, the joint range of motion (ROM) increased, changes of the three-directional force at the foot junction decreased. The forces were the lowest on ice among the three types of ground, the X-, Y- and Z-directional changes were about 62.96, 83.7, and 319.85 N respectively, and the ROMs for the ankle joint and metatarsophalangeal joint of mechanical foot I were about 17.93° and 16.10°, respectively. This study revealed the active adaptation mechanism between the biomimetic mechanical foot and ice or frozen ground, and thus theoretically underlies research on the biomimetic mechanical foot.
... ESA has proposed a plan to build a lunar village. China plans to conduct multiple detections and samples of lunar water ice by 2030 [14]. Lunar water ice mainly exists in permanent shadow areas (craters), which are difficult for wheeled robots to pass through. ...
The attachment performances of mechanical feet are significant in improving the trafficability and mobility of robots on the extreme ground. In the future, frozen-ground robots can be used to replace human soldiers in scouting and deep space exploration. In this study, the influence factors on the attachment function of the bionic feet were analyzed. Soft frozen soil and tight frozen soil close to natural frozen soil were prepared, and the friction between ungula and frozen soil ground was simulated together with the plantar pressures of reindeer under trotting. The major attachment parts were the ungula cusp, outer edges, and ungula capsules, and the stress on the ungula was mainly 4.56–24.72 MPa. According to the microstructures of plantar fur and ungula, the corresponding ratio of the rib width and length was 0.65:1, and the corresponding ratio of the rib width and distance was 3:1. In addition, the scales of the plantar fur were very tightly arranged and had large ripples. Based on typical curves, an ungula capsule-curved surface, and a nonsmooth plantar fur surface, four types of bionic feet and the corresponding ordinary multidamboard foot were designed. On the frozen soil, the bionic foot with ribs and an ungula capsule showed the best attachment performance. Compared with the multidamboard foot, the dynamic coefficient of friction of the bionic foot with ribs and ungula capsules increased by 11.43–31.75%. The attachment mechanism of the bionic feet is as follows: under the action of pressure, the fine patterns of the bionic convex-crown generate friction with the nonsmooth structure of the frozen soil surface, which improves the attachment performance.
... These gases will be drawn outward and deposited on the lunar surface. Green (2011) reports that "common terrestrial fumarolic fluids may include water (H 2 O), carbon dioxide (CO 2 ), sulfur (S), sulfur dioxide (SO 2 ), carbon monoxide (CO), sulfur dichloride (SCl 2 ), methane (CH 4 ), ethane (C 2 H 6 ), carbonyl sulfide (COS), hydrogen sulfide (H 2 S), ammonia (NH 3 ), cyanogen (CN), and hydrogen cyanide (HCN) that are of major importance". Remote sensing data from the Lunar Reconnaissance Orbiter (LRO) has determined that the Moon holds a significant amount of frozen H 2 O and OH in and around its permanently shadowed regions (PSR) as shown in the left panel of Figure 4 (adapted from Sanin, et al., 2017) as a blue-shaded region over top of the lunar south pole image. ...
Recently it has been identified that our Moon had an extensive magnetosphere for several hundred million years soon after it was formed when the Moon was within 20 Earth Radii (RE) from the Earth. Some aspects of the interaction between the early Earth-Moon magnetospheres are investigated by mapping the interconnected field lines between the Earth and the Moon and investigating how the early lunar magnetosphere affects the magnetospheric dynamics within the coupled magnetospheres over time. So long as the magnetosphere of the Moon remains strong as it moves away from the Earth in the antialigned dipole configuration, the extent of the Earth’s open field lines decreases. As a result, at times it significantly changes the structure of the field-aligned current system, pushing the polar cusp significantly northward, and forcing magnetotail reconnection sites into the deeper tail region. In addition, the combined magnetospheres of the Earth and the Moon greatly extend the number of closed field lines enabling a much larger plasmasphere to exist and connecting the lunar polar cap with closed field lines to the Earth. That configuration supports the transfer of plasma between the Earth and the Moon potentially creating a time capsule of the evolution of volatiles with depth. This paper only touches on the evolution of the early Earth and Moon magnetospheres, which has been a largely neglected space physics problem and has great potential for complex follow-on studies using more advanced tools and due to the expected new lunar data coming in the next decade through the Artemis Program.
... SIMS-determined isotopic carbon evidence from early Earth environments has demonstrated that the earliest life on Earth appeared approximately 4 Ga ago (Brocks et al., 2005;Dodd et al., 2017). The atmosphere of early Earth is postulated to have contained CO 2 , N 2 , H 2 S, SO 2 , CO, H 2 O, NH 3 , CH 4 , and H 2 (Green, 2011). Using HPLC, GC, or UV spectrophotometry, the Miller-Urey experiment and similar simulations of prebiotic Earth conditions were able to detect the formation of numerous organic molecules (e.g., alcohols, aldehydes, organic acids, nucleobases, amino acids, sugars) (Table 2) (Miller, 1953;Oro, 1965;Bar-Nun and Hartman, 1978). ...
For decades, the search for potential signs of Martian life has attracted strong international interest and has led to significant planning and scientific implementation. Clearly, in order to detect potential life signals beyond Earth, fundamental questions, such as how to define such terms as “life” and “biosignature”, have been given considerable attention. Due to the high costs of direct exploration of Mars, Mars-like regions on Earth have been invaluable targets for astrobiological research, places where scientists could practice the search for “biosignatures” and refine ways to detect them. This review summarizes scientific instrumental techniques that have resulted from this work. Instruments must necessarily be our “eyes” and “hands” as we attempt to identify and quantify biosignatures on Mars. Scientific devices that can be applied in astrobiology include mass spectrometers and electromagnetic-spectrum-based spectrometers, redox potential indicators, circular dichroism polarimeters, in situ nucleic acid sequencers, life isolation/cultivation systems, and imagers. These devices and how to interpret the data they collect have been tested in Mars-analog extreme environments on Earth to validate their practicality on Mars. To anticipate the challenges of instrumental detection of biosignatures through the full evolutionary history of Mars, Terrestrial Mars analogs are divided into four major categories according to their similarities to different Martian geological periods (the Early−Middle Noachian Period, the Late Noachian−Early Hesperian Period, the Late Hesperian−Early Amazonian Period, and the Middle−Late Amazonian Period). Future missions are suggested that would focus more intensively on Mars’ Southern Hemisphere, once landing issues there are solved by advances in spacecraft engineering, since exploration of these early terrains will permit investigations covering a wider continuum of the shifting habitability of Mars through its geological history. Finally, this paper reviews practical applications of the range of scientific instruments listed above, based on the four categories of Mars analogs here on Earth. We review the selection of instruments suitable for autonomous robotic rover tests in these Mars analogs. From considerations of engineering efficiency, a Mars rover ought to be equipped with as few instrument assemblies as possible. Therefore, once candidate landing regions on Mars are defined, portable suites of instruments should be smartly devised on the basis of the known geological, geochemical, geomorphological, and chronological characteristics of each Martian landing region. Of course, if Mars sample-return missions are successful, such samples will allow experiments in laboratories on Earth that can be far more comprehensive and affordable than is likely to be practicable on Mars. To exclude false positive and false negative conclusions in the search for extraterrestrial life, multiple diverse and complementary analytical techniques must be combined, replicated, and carefully interpreted. The question of whether signatures of life can be detected on Mars is of the greatest importance. Answering that question is extremely challenging but appears to have become manageable.
... 23 (N2), carbon dioxide (CO2), hydrogen sulphide (H2S) and sulphur dioxide (SO2) into the atmosphere, and likely played a critical role in determining its composition. 17,18 Identities of molecular species in magmatic outgassing, the release of gas from volcanoes, depend on the partial pressure of oxygen. The partial pressure of oxygen depends on the magmatic characteristics of the volcanoes. ...
... 17 Volcanic melts that have oxygen partial pressures close to that defined by the iron-wüstite buffer, a signature in the rock that indicates it has little oxygen, would yield volatile species similar to that of the Miller-Urey atmosphere (CH4, H2, H2S, NH3 and CO). 17,18 Conversely, melts close to the fayalitemagnetite-quartz buffer signify that the rocks would have had a higher oxygen concentration and would have been similar to present-day conditions with H2O, CO2, SO2, and N2 gases. 17 The oxidation state of samples from the Hadean era magmatic melts are consistent with that of the fayalite-magnetite-quartz buffer, suggesting that the atmosphere was less reducing. ...
... This is a method of comparing the relative abundance of isotopes in samples, such as rocks and water, to elucidate the characteristics of the samples such as age. 19,20 Using the ratio of 18 O to 16 O isotopes found in fossils or rocks, researchers are able to determine the temperature at the time the organism existed or the rock was formed. 19 Using Equation (3), as seen below, the 18 O value corresponds to the ratio of both oxygen isotopes in the sample divided by the ratio of a standard, which is anything that has a known isotopic ratio. ...
When, where, and how did life on Earth originate? The origin of life problem involves multiple scientific disciplines and has spanned multiple decades. It can be summarized into three stages: (1) the origin of biological monomers, (2) the origin of biological polymers, and (3) the emergence and evolution of cells. While highly speculative, the connections between these stages are theorized by attempting to determine the geochemical situations which could have driven chemical evolution and allow for the emergence of specific chemical functions of biological systems. This review summarizes reported findings relevant to the early Earth environment and the main theories in the origin of life subject. Specific focus is placed on the metabolism first, RNA world, and compartmentalization first theories as they are involved in the origin of life paradox. The review then discusses submarine hydrothermal vents as a possible location for which life could have occurred. Understanding of information pertaining to the origin of life is important as it allows for advancement and discoveries in other fields of science and medicine. Overall, the aim of this review is to display the relevant information about the origin of life theory and highlight the importance of future research.
... However, by taking into consideration the abundant volcanic outgassing that occurred 4 billion years ago, the Earth's original atmosphere might have contained less reducing molecules than originally thought by Miller and Urey. Thus, more water, carbon dioxide (CO 2 ), nitrogen (N 2 ), hydrogen sulfide (H 2 S), and sulfur dioxide (SO 2 ) were released into the atmosphere (Green, 2011) with fewer amounts of carbon monoxide (CO) and hydrogen (H 2 ) (Zahnle et al., 2010). More recent experiments that used these gases produced even more amino acids than the 20 amino acids used by the modern translation machinery (Parker et al., 2011). ...
The structural flexibility of RNA and its ability to store genetic information has led scientists to postulate that RNA could be the key molecule for the development of life on Earth, further leading to formulate the RNA world hypothesis that received a lot of success and acceptance after the discoveries of the last thirty-five years. Despite its highly structural and functional significance, the difficulty in synthesizing the four nucleobases that form the RNA polymer from the same primordial soup, its low stability, and limited catalytic repertoire, make the RNA world hypothesis less convincing even though it remains the best explanation for the origin of life. An increasing number of scientists are becoming more supportive of a more realistic approach explaining the appearance of life. In this review, I propose an enhanced explanation for the appearance of life supported by recent discoveries and theories. Accordingly, amino acids and peptides associated with RNA (e.g., ribonucleopeptides) might have existed at the onset of RNA and might have played an important role in the continuous development of self-sustaining biological systems. Therefore, in this review, I cover the most recent and relevant scientific investigations that propose a better understanding of the ribonucleopeptide world hypothesis and the appearance of life. Finally, I propose two hypotheses for a primitive translation machinery (PTM) that might have been formed of either a T box ribozyme or a ribopolymerase.
The attachment characteristics of the mechanical foot end are crucial for enhancing the traversability and locomotion of robots on extreme terrains. In this study targeting the reindeer touchdown unit, four bio-inspired foot ends and one conventional multi-baffle foot end were designed. Dynamic friction data of the bio-inspired foot ends were collected under various ground conditions, and the macro- and micro-structures of these surfaces were analyzed. The impacts of multiple factors on the attachment performances of the bio-inspired foot ends were explored, including the moisture content and compactness of frozen soil, and the ridges and convex crowns of foot ends. Additionally, a sliding/rolling friction conversion model was proposed to describe the interaction between the foot ends and frozen soil. When the ends interacted with the frozen ground and simulant for water-ice lunar soil, the attachment of the bio-inspired ribbed foot end and convex-crown was the best, and its dynamic coefficient of friction (DCOF) increased by 24.19%-44.68% and 35.14%-51.47% than the multi-baffle foot end. Upon interacting with the ice surface, the bio-inspired ribless foot end and non-convex crown demonstrated the best attachment performance. The DCOFs of these designs increased by about 24% compared to the multi-baffle foot end. The attachment performances of foot ends were more affected by moisture content compared with the compacted state of frozen ground. Compared to the ribless and non-convex-crown structures, the structures of ribs and convex-crown increased DCOF by 1%-15% and 18%-42%, respectively. Therefore, the effect of convex-crowns was greater than that of ribs. This study can improve the adaptability and traversability of robots on extreme terrains, which is of great significance for their applications in exploring polar regions, the moon, and other harsh environments.
Index of published papers on thermology or temperature measurement
Volume 4: 2011 to 2013
Published papers on thermology or temperature measurement, between 2011 and 2012,
