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The role of outcome feedback in collaborative learning settings has received little empirical attention. We examined whether outcome feedback improves learning gains in singleton and dyadic learning conditions, while specifying different dyadic pairing options. In a randomized experiment, 496 ninth-graders solved challenging tasks that required ful...
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Context 1
... Table 2 For this item (item 3), proto-proportional and proportional strategies lead to the same (correct) answer, but the other two strategies do not. In the case of item 4 (second item displayed in Figure 2), the proto-proportional strategy leads to the conclusion that the answer is undetermined (which is incorrect), whereas the proportional strategy leads to the conclusion that C weighs less than D (the correct answer). The 5BlocksTaskTest was designed to assess student's proportional reasoning strategies at pre-and posttest with the help of five test items. ...
Context 2
... collaboration as a general condition was subdivided into different dyadic compositions (Wx-Wx, Wx-Wy, and Wx-R), however, a main effect of pairing condition on learning gains was found, with Wx students who interacted with R partners outperforming learners in Wx-Wx, Wx-Wy and singleton condition (Hypotheses 4b and 3). Contrary to expectations, interaction in heterogeneous pairs (Wx-Wy) did not lead to higher learning gains than interaction in homogeneous pairs (Wx-Wx) (Hypothesis 2). Finally, the main effect of receiving outcome feedback disappeared when different dyadic compositions were specified. ...
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Citations
... The context of that interaction is not equivalent to that of argumentation since the given tasks and disciplinary domains mentioned in the aforementioned studies are either the type for which students already have and are certain about the correct answer (e.g., Darnon et al., 2006) or of the type for which the answers provided by both parties are correct and must be combined to obtain a complete solution (e.g., Darnon et al., 2007). Combination and compromise are not necessarily involved in argumentation (Asterhan et al., 2014). Therefore, it remains unclear whether the achievement goals that individuals pursue are related to the ways in which they interact with a disagreeing peer in this context argumentation (Asterhan, 2018). ...
Collaborative argumentation has been recognized as a powerful means to facilitate conceptual change of scientific concepts for which students have robust misconceptions. However, eliciting and maintaining collaborative argumentation that yields such productive outcomes is known to be difficult. Specifically, social‐motivational antecedents have not yet been explored. Over 13 weeks, we conducted a controlled experiment to examine the role of achievement goals in productive collaborative argumentation in the context of scientific concept learning while fully considering the effects on conceptual change, argumentative discourse, and perceptions of conflicts. Three types of achievement goals were identified among 94 undergraduates: mastery goal‐dominant (a focus on developing competence and task mastery), two goals‐balanced (pursuing mastery and performance goals simultaneously) and performance goal‐dominant (a focus on demonstrating competence relative to others). Eighteen homogeneous groups participated in four collaborative argumentation activities concerning four scientific topics of varying controversy levels. The results showed that for highly controversial topics, mastery goal‐dominant students and two goals‐balanced students exhibited greater conceptual change than performance goal‐dominant students over a longer period. Dialogue protocol analysis further revealed a combined pattern of argumentative discourse (i.e., both deliberative argumentation and co‐consensual construction frequently occurred, while disputative argumentation rarely occurred) among mastery goal‐dominant students and two goals‐balanced students concerning highly controversial topics. Responses to stimulated recall interviews also indicated that perceptions of conflicts among the three types of students differed in terms of five aspects: their first impression of disagreements, their feelings in response to peer disagreement, their reasons for changing or maintaining to their original ideas, the meaning of group consensus, and the degrees to which they accepted group consensus. This study sheds light on the role of social‐motivational antecedents, deepening our understanding of whether different achievement goals might orient students to different perceptions of conflicts, triggering different argumentative discourse, producing different conceptual change.
... In this sense, it could be proposed that student´s prior scientific knowledge, specifically the similarity or dissimilarity between partners, influences the argumentation process (Castellaro et al., 2021). Consequently, argumentation, as an interactive process, might show variations based on the simmetry or assimetry between individual perspectives or competences (Asterhan et al., 2014). Within this framework, the aim of the article is to analyze the process of dialogic argumentation during the collaborative resolution of physics tasks in first-year Engineering student dyads at the university. ...
... Ultimately, it is possible to consider that in asymmetrical dyads, the argumentative dynamics could be likened to a tutoring effect, where the question plays an essential role in leveling knowledge and facilitating constructive dialogue. This finding implies, on a conceptual level, an expansion of the idea of sociocognitive conflict because it does not arise from the confrontation of perspectives but from the imbalances that questions or inquiries from the more advanced individual can create when directed at the person with a lower level of conceptualization (Asterhan et al., 2014;Castellaro et al., 2023). This represents a point of theoretical integration between perspectives identified with a Piagetian and Vygotskian approach. ...
En los últimos años, los investigadores en Psicología Educativa han centrado su atención en el estudio de la argumentación, especialmente en contextos de interacción sociocognitiva en entornos educativos formales. La argumentación se define como una práctica social, comunicativa y cognitiva vinculada al contexto, donde se requiere justificar puntos de vista con razones. En la educación universitaria, la argumentación es crucial para los estudiantes en todas las actividades académicas. El estudio analizó la argumentación dialógica durante la resolución colaborativa de tareas de física por estudiantes de primer año de Ingeniería. Los resultados mostraron un alto conflicto sociocognitivo, razonamiento simple y referencia a saber previo. Se concluye que es fundamental para el desarrollo de la capacidad argumentativa de los estudiantes el planteo de actividades que incentiven el conflicto sociocognitivo apuntando a lograr que el estudiante pueda ofrecer un punto de vista que abarque múltiples perspectivas y complejizando de esta manera su comprensión de los fenómenos en estudio.
... Nevertheless, given the relatively sparse literature on how to best design feedback for collaborative groups, we can formulate some valuable recommendations. In line withAsterhan et al. (2014), who reported that the effects of feedback were not uniform as they depended on student composition, we found a similar pattern of results indicating that achievement emotions, in particular, were sensitive to the interaction between feedback reference frames and student performance within a group. Our findings suggest that criterion-referenced feedback information emotionally benefits overperformers and negatively impacts underperformers, thus making it difficult to advocate for this usually favoured feedback reference frame. ...
Background
Developments in educational technology and learning analytics make it possible to automatically formulate and deploy personalized formative feedback to learners at scale. However, to be effective, the motivational and emotional impacts of such automated and personalized feedback need to be considered. The literature on feedback suggests that effective feedback, among other features, provides learners with a standard to compare their performance with, often called a reference frame. Past research has highlighted the emotional and motivational benefits of criterion‐referenced feedback (i.e., performance relative to a learning objective or mastery goal) compared to norm‐referenced feedback (performance relative to peers).
Objectives
Despite a substantial body of evidence regarding reference frame effects, important open questions remain. The questions encompass, for example, whether the benefits and drawbacks of norm‐referenced feedback apply in the same way to automated and personalize feedback messages and whether these effects apply to students uniformly. Further, the potential impacts of combining reference frames are largely unknown, even though combinations may be quite frequent in feedback practice. Finally, little research has been done on the effects of reference frames in computer‐supported collaborative learning, which differs from individual learning in meaningful ways. This study aims to contribute to addressing these open questions, thus providing insights into effective feedback design. Specifically, we aim to investigate usefulness perceptions as well as emotional and motivational effects of different reference frames—and their combination—in automated and personalized formative feedback on a computer‐supported collaborative learning task.
Methods
A randomized field experiment with four feedback conditions (simple feedback, norm‐referenced, criterion‐referenced, and combined feedback) was conducted in a course within a teacher training program (N = 282). Collaborative groups worked on a learning task in the online learning environment, after which they received one of four possible automated and personalized formative feedback. We collected student data about feedback usefulness perceptions, motivational regulation, and achievement emotions to assess the differential effects of these feedback conditions.
Results
All feedback types were perceived as useful relative to the simple feedback condition. Norm‐referenced feedback showed detrimental effects for motivational regulation, whereas combined feedback led to more desirable motivational states. Further, criterion‐referenced feedback led to more positive emotions for overperformers and to more negative emotions for underperformers. The findings are discussed in light of the broader feedback literature, and recommendations for designing automated and personalized formative feedback messages for computer‐supported collaborative learning are presented.
... When pairing students together on a learning task, performance outcomes greatly improve when feedback was provided regarding the accuracy of their outcomes. Students who received feedback about whether their solution to a problem was right or wrong were more likely to work collaboratively with their partner to find correct solutions on subsequent attempts (Asterhan et al., 2014). ...
p style="text-align: justify;">Psychosocial and educational intervention approaches employ diverse treatment frameworks, most of which involve delivering some form of feedback to participants about their behavior. General conceptions of feedback are well-known to underlie mainstream therapeutic and educational approaches. Recently emerging ‘smart’ approaches also rely on feedback principles. However, little scholarship is available to stitch together evolving strands of feedback principles and no literature characterizes explicitly the diverse landscape of feedback practices employed in education or intervention science. This paper reviews intrinsic conceptions of feedback along with diverse cases of its use in intervention and education. Based on our consideration, we present a typology of feedback modalities that we hope will enrich the efforts of interventionists and educators to design treatment and educational frameworks incorporating feedback.</p
... When evaluating the collaboration element and the feedback construct, we argued that they are connected and that collaborative work involves feedback (Daniel et al., 2013;Jang et al., 2022). Similarly, it is observed that the feedback element affects the performance of joint work (Asterhan et al., 2014;Guasch et al., 2013;Wigglesworth & Storch, 2012;Zumbach et al., 2006). In contrast, when the Authentic experience construct and the feedback factor is addressed, feedback is essential for meaningful learning, while Authentic experiences are necessary for appropriate feedback (Copland, 2010;Ellis & Loughland, 2017;Lee, 2014;McLachlan & Tippett, 2023). ...
Technology and pedagogy integration is a skill that teachers must possess in order to successfully implement technology in the classroom. In order to evaluate the technology integration training that instructors received, a scale was created in this study within the parameters of the SQD model. We recruited a total of 492 teachers from elementary, middle, and high schools. The scale developed in this study consists of 5 factors (constructs) and 40 items namely “Reflection (Ref)”, “Role Model (Rol)”, “Collaboration (Col)”, “Instructional Design (ID)”, and “Authentic Experiences (AutE)”. There is evidence that the constructed scale has explained 72.358 percent of the total variation. The Cronbach's alpha internal consistency reliability rating for the total scale was calculated to be 0.97. As a consequence of the analyses conducted, we found that the scale is a valid and reliable measurement instrument that can be used to assess the technology integration training of teachers. We can note that the scale has the potential to make major contributions to the existing literature.
... Desde una perspectiva centrada en el aspecto puramente epistémico de la interacción, la simetría o asimetría del intercambio sociocognitivo entre los sujetos (es decir, el equilibrio o desequilibrio entre los aportes de ambos) ha sido interpretada principalmente como expresión de la igualdad o desigualdad cognitiva entre estos (Asterhan et al., 2014;Castellaro y Roselli, 2018a, 2018bDenessen et al., 2008;Schmitz y Winskel, 2008). En cambio, una mirada psicosocial ampliada de la interacción no solo analiza a la interacción en función de las similitudes o diferencias cog- nitivas entre los sujetos, sino que también destaca la necesidad de incluir otras variables que no son estrictamente de carácter cognitivo pero que también pueden erigirse como posibles fuentes de simetría o asimetría relacional (Psaltis y Zapiti, 2014;Quiamzade et al., 2014;Staerklé y Butera, 2017). ...
... Finalmente, este trabajo representa una extensión de las investigaciones sobre interacción sociocognitiva infantil entre pares hacia el ámbito de la apropiación de sistemas externos de representación (Andersen et al., 2017;Pozo, 2017), en este caso referido a la comprensión de un sistema tabular de frecuencias numéricas. Hablamos de "extensión", puesto que tradicionalmente la mayoría de los estudios sobre interacción entre pares estuvieron enfocados en tareas de resolución de problemas lógicos (Asterhan et al., 2014;Castellaro y Roselli, 2018b;Wegerif et al., 2016;Yang, 2015) o de construcción de nociones primarias del pensamiento en el sentido piagetiano del término (Zapiti y Psaltis, 2012. Ambos tipos de tareas están vinculados con la construcción de organizadores formales o sintácticos del pensamiento, relativamente independientes de dominios específicos. ...
Resumen. El artículo es expresión de la confluencia de dos líneas socioconstructivistas: los estudios sobre interacción entre pares y los estudios sobre procesos de apropiación de sistemas externos de representación. El objetivo es analizar la influencia de la simetría/asimetría de competencia y de género sobre la interacción diádica involucrada en la comprensión colaborativa de una tabla de frecuencias, en estudiantes de sexto y séptimo grado. Se trata de un estudio cuasi-experimental de solo postest, con dos variables independientes. La primera variable independiente es la simetría/asimetría de competencia, definida por la igualdad o diferencia entre los niveles individuales de comprensión de la tabla (básico o avanzado) de los compañeros de díada: ambos sujetos de competencia básica (simetría básica), ambos sujetos de competencia avanzada (simetría avanzada), un sujeto de competencia básica con un sujeto de competencia avanzada (asimetría). La segunda variable independiente es la simetría/asimetría de género, definida por la igualdad o diferencia de género entre los compañeros de díada: niña-niña, niño-niño y mixta. La variable dependiente es la propia interacción sociocognitiva involucrada en la comprensión colaborativa de tablas de frecuencia. Participaron 240 estudiantes de sexto y séptimo grado (120 díadas), seleccionados de manera no probabilística. Pertenecían a cuatro escuelas de gestión oficial del sur de la provincia de Santa Fe (Argentina), con una edad media de 12,26 años (SD=0,64) y distribuidos equitativamente según género (49,2% niñas y 50,8% niños). Cada díada resolvió 12 ítems de elección múltiple; cada uno de estos evaluaba un aspecto de la comprensión de la tabla. La interacción colaborativa fue analizada a partir de un sistema de categorías mutuamente excluyentes y exhaustivas, pertenecientes a tres dimensiones: aportes dirigidos a la resolución de la tarea, aportes dirigidos a la organización de la resolución de la tarea y aportes organizativos generales. La conclusión más firme es que las variaciones más marcadas de la interacción sociocognitiva son generadas por la simetría/asimetría de competencia específica, específicamente, por los aportes sociocognitivos dirigidos directamente a la resolución de la tarea, lo cual condice con la literatura previa. En lo que respecta a la simetría/asimetría de género, los hallazgos sugieren efectos diferenciadores mucho menos marcados que los registrados por la simetría/asimetría de competencia, lo cual es coincidente con los antecedentes más recientes. Los hallazgos se discuten en función de los aspectos psicosociales y evolutivos del fenómeno, y se rescata el valor del estudio en tanto contribuye a una mirada situada de la interacción sociocognitiva entre pares.
Palabras clave. Interacción sociocognitiva; Colaboración entre pares; Comprensión de tablas; Sistemas externos de representación; Socioconstructivismo
Abstract. The article express the confluence between two Socio-constructivist trends: studies on peer interaction and studies on process of appropriation of external representation systems. The aim is to analyze the influence of competence and gender symmetry/asymmetry on the dyadic interaction involved in collaborative comprehension of a frequency table, in six and seven grade students. It was proposed a only posttest quasi-experimental design with two independent variables. The first one was the competence symmetry/asymmetry defined by equality or inequality between individual levels of table comprehension (basic or advanced): two participants of basic competence (basic symmetry), two participants of advanced competence (advanced symmetry) and one participant of basic competence with another one of advanced competence (asymmetry). The second one was the gender symmetry/asymmetry defined by gender equality or inequality between partners: girl-girl, boy-boy and mixed. The dependent variable was the socio-cognitive interaction involved in the collaborative comprehension of the frequency table. Participants are 240 six and seven grade students (120 dyads), selected in a non probabilistic way. They belonged to four official schools in the south of Santa Fe province (Argentina). The mean age was 12,26 years old (SD=0,64) and they were equally distributed by gender (49,2% girls y 50,8% boys). Each dyad solved 12 multiple choice items; each of these assessed one aspect of table comprehension. The collaborative interaction was analyzed according to a system of mutually and exhaustive categories, belonging to three dimensions: contributions directly oriented to task resolution, contributions oriented to the organization of task resolution and general organizational contributions. The main conclusion is that the most accentuated variations of socio-cognitive interaction are caused by competence symmetry/asymmetry, i. e. by units directly oriented to task resolution (that coincides with literature). On other hand, gender symmetry/asymmetry show minimal effects on interaction compared to competence symmetry/asymmetry, which coincides with more recent antecedents. The findings are discussed according psychosocial and developmental implications of the phenomenon, and it was rescue the value of study since. The findings are discussed according to the psychosocial and evolutionary aspects of the phenomenon, and the value of the study is rescued as it contributes to a situated view of the socio-cognitive interaction between peers.
Keywords. Socio-cognitive interaction; Peer collaboration; Table comprehension; External representation systems; Socio-constructivism
... In this case, too, their interactions led to conceptual change (in proportional reasoning), and some examples of argumentative processes that led to this change could be detected (Schwarz and Linchevski, 2007). However, a fine-grained analysis of the talk of dyads showed that this was generally not the case (Asterhan et al., 2014). Rather, when students whose strategies were additively interacted with students whose strategies were multiplicative, and both failed to solve the Blocks task alone, the students with multiplicative strategies dominated the talk, and conceptual change happened through explanations rather than through argumentation. ...
We refer to four general theories of argumentation that provide insights on innovative current approaches in mathematics education. Through several examples of tasks, we show the richness of argumentative practices in the learning and teaching of mathematics that have some bonds with these general theories of argumentation. We show, however, that these theories do not capture the specific processes and the complexities of argumentation in the learning and teaching of mathematics according to innovative pedagogies. We pledge for new advances in mathematics education based on design-based research that fosters deliberative, epistemological, rhetorical, and structural aspects of argumentation.
... Siguiendo lo anterior, es posible plantear la distinción entre composiciones sociocognitivas simétricas (igualdad) y asimétricas (desigualdad). Existe un consenso general acerca de la influencia de la composición sociocognitiva sobre la interacción (Asterhan et al., 2014;Castellaro & Roselli, 2020), especialmente sobre los aspectos más vinculados con la elaboración cognitiva de la actividad (Castellaro & Roselli, 2018a, 2019Denessen et al., 2008;Garton & Pratt, 2001;Gabriele, 2007;Morguen et al., 2020;Schmitz & Winskel, 2008). El debate se plantea, más bien, en torno a la valoración social, cognitiva y educativa que se otorga a la simetría o a la asimetría entre pares, lo cual varía en función del enfoque teórico desde el cual se las interpreta. ...
... Por su parte, una mirada sociocultural enfatiza el rol de la asimetría como un cimiento necesario para la construcción del conocimiento. Por ejemplo, Asterhan et al. (2014) cuestiona los beneficios de la interacción simétrica entre sujetos de competencia básica, en contraste con la oportunidad que ofrecería a estos/as resolver problemas y recibir la retroalimentación del compañero/a de competencia avanzada. Sin embargo, también sabemos que esto no siempre ocurre y que la asimetría sin tutoría o participación guiada (Rogoff, 2012) puede derivar en imposición y/o dominio-sumisión cognitiva (Castellaro & Roselli, 2018b, 2019, lo cual nos acerca nuevamente a los argumentos propuestos desde una mirada piagetiana clásica (Piaget, 1932(Piaget, /1984. ...
En la literatura socioconstructivista sobre interacción sociocognitiva entre pares predomina un enfoque microanalítico estructural o transversal. Aquí se propone incorporar una perspectiva microsecuencial para analizar la interacción sociocognitiva entre pares, ocurrida en un contexto de asimetría de competencia. Dicha perspectiva se enfoca en la trayectoria de transformaciones y cambios ocurridos evento a evento. El objetivo es identificar microtransiciones regulares entre las unidades cognitivas aportadas por los compañeros/as, en díadas con asimetría de competencia de sexto y séptimo grado que resolvieron una tarea de comprensión de una tabla de frecuencias cruzadas. Participaron 43 díadas (86 sujetos, edad: X=12,29; DE=0,64), de escuelas oficiales de Rosario y zona de influencia (Argentina). La interacción fue codificada a partir de tres grupos de categorías según su función en la tarea: dirigidas a suresolución, a su organización o indirectamente vinculadas. Se realizó un análisis de probabilidades de transición entre todos los códigos. Las transiciones identificadas fueron organizadas según eran: comunes entre ambos/as sujetos o específicas desde uno/a hacia el otro/a; intrasubjetivas o intersubjetivas; activadas o inhibidas. Los resultados indican una fuerte activación de transiciones de carácter intersubjetivo cuando los códigos refieren a afirmaciones dirigidas a resolver la tarea, y esto se observa igualmente desde un sujeto al otro, más allá de la asimetría de competencia entre estos. También se identificaron transiciones dependientes de la asimetría, generalmente activadas o inhibidas a partir de intervenciones del sujeto más competente. El trabajo permite concluir acerca de la relevancia de un enfoque (micro) secuencial de la interacción sociocognitiva, en tanto los resultados aquí reportados no podrían haberse obtenido desde una perspectiva estructural clásica.
... Buena parte de las investigaciones se ha concentrado en los procesos de construcción de nociones lógicas primarias del pensamiento postuladas por la psicología genética, por ejemplo, conservación, rotación espacial y clasificación (Doise & Mugny, 1984;Fawcett & Garton, 2005;Psaltis & Duveen, 2007;Zapiti y Psaltis, 2012. Otra parte de la literatura se enfocó en tareas de resolución de problemas lógicos y de razonamiento científico (Asterhan et al., 2014;Castellaro y Roselli, 2018;Castellaro et al., 2020b;Schmitz y Winskel, 2008;Rojas-Drummond et al., 2006;Wegerif et al., 2016;Yang, 2016). También hay estudios sobre tareas colaborativas abiertas (también llamadas no estructuradas o expresivas) como el dibujo libre (Castellaro & Roselli, 2015), composición musical (Miell & McDonald, 2000) o composición de textos (Rojas-Drummond et al., 2008). ...
... Adicionalmente, la investigación incluye un último interrogante relativo al análisis de los efectos de la composición de las díadas en cuanto a la igualdad o desigualdad de los niveles individuales de comprensión de la tabla. Se trata de una variable ampliamente considerada en la literatura (Asterhan et al., 2014;Castellaro y Roselli, 2018Castellaro et al., 2020b;Fawcett & Garton, 2005;Schmitz y Winskel, 2008). El presente trabajo compara tres composiciones sociocognitivas de las díadas: simetría básica (dos compañeros con un nivel básico de comprensión de la tabla), simetría avanzada (dos compañeros con un nivel avanzado de comprensión de la tabla) y asimetría (un sujeto con un nivel básico de comprensión de la tabla y otro con un nivel avanzado de dicho sistema). ...
... Por otra parte, en cuanto a la influencia de la composición sociocognitiva de la díada, los resultados corroboran sus efectos sobre el proceso sociocognitivo acorde a la literatura clásica y más reciente (Asterhan et al., 2014;Castellaro y Roselli, 2018Castellaro et al., 2020a;Fawcett & Garton, 2005;Schmitz y Winskel, 2008). Más específicamente, dichos efectos refieren a la elaboración y resolución del proceso. ...
El trabajo se inscribe en un programa general de investigación cuyo propósito es trasladar el estudio de la interacción entre pares al ámbito de la apropiación de diferentes sistemas externos de representación. Así pues, en el presente artículo de investigación científica y tecnológica se analiza el proceso sociocognitivo involucrado en la comprensión colaborativa de una tabla cruzada de frecuencias (en díadas), desde una perspectiva secuencial. Se diferenciaron tres fases: posicionamiento inicial frente a la consigna, elaboración y toma de decisión final. Participaron 120 díadas (240 estudiantes) de 6° y 7° grado, de la ciudad de Rosario y cercanías (Argentina). Las diferenciaciones principales refirieron al momento de elaboración. En general, predominó el acuerdo sobre el conflicto, sin fundamentación; cuando se registraron modalidades fundamentadas, predominaron las unilaterales; en los casos de conflicto, prevaleció su resolución relacional. Estas tendencias se acentuaron o debilitaron según menor o mayor dificultad del ítem. La composición sociocognitiva también registró diferenciaciones significativas en las fases de elaboración y resolución, oponiendo díadas simétricas avanzadas, respecto a las simétricas básicas y asimétricas. Los resultados condicen con los postulados de la teoría del conflicto sociocognitivo y se corroboran los niveles de comprensión reportados por la literatura.
... Polo et al. (2016), Hennessy et al. (2016), Bungum et al. Bungum et al. (2018), Nikolaidou Nikolaidou (2012), Fisher Fisher (1993, Asterhan and Schwarz Asterhan et al. (2014), Fernandez et al. Fernández et al. (2001), and T'sas T'Sas (2018). ...
By encouraging elementary students to work collaboratively, they can gain essential skills such as perspective taking, conflict negotiation, and asking for and receiving assistance. Epistemic Network Analysis (ENA) is an analytic technique that provides an alternative to more typical approaches to analyzing and synthesizing coded dialogue. This study used an easy-to-implement prompting intervention in the context of collaborative (pair) programming with upper elementary students to demonstrate the potential of ENA to understand the impact of the intervention. We found that intervention students—those given empirically-derived prompts in support of collaborative and exploratory talk—asked questions, justified their thinking, and offered alternative ideas in ways that were both qualitatively and quantitatively different from control students.
