Fig 2 - uploaded by Vigneshwaran Shanmugam
Content may be subject to copyright.
(a) Production of plastics worldwide from 1950 to 2018 (in million metric tons) and (b) PET plastic bottle recycling rates among different countries in 2017* and 2018
Source publication
This article is a short review of the circular material economy and recycling in the additive manufacturing (AM) of polymers. In the recent years, there has been a surge regarding the production of numerous products through AM of various polymers. AM can provide an opportunity for a better manufacturing solution to facilitate productivity and susta...
Contexts in source publication
Context 1
... the world is on the increase and in general is pernicious towards the environment causing pollution that harms aquatic species and humans. Polymer/plastic production has increased worldwide from 1.5 million metric tons in 1950 to 359 million metric tons in 2018 (Garside 2019). The production of plastics worldwide from 1950 to 2018 is shown in Fig. 2a. Approximately 4 to 12 million metric tons of plastics have accumulated in terrestrial waters, negatively affecting the aquatic life ( Jambeck et al. 2015). Due to their mass production and relatively low cost, polymers are increasingly used in day-to-day products for humans. Between 1950 and2015, 8300 million metric tons of plastics ...
Context 2
... is one method by which waste polymers have been remanufactured into new useful products. However, it is a complex process that involves a number of processing steps. Nevertheless, the life of polymers can be increased through recycling and reuse. The recycling of polymers has been substantially pursued by different nations. For instance, Fig. 2b shows the recycling rate of polyethylene terephthalate (PET)-based containers In the recent years, the processing of polymers through AM has increased due to the desirable characteristics of the process ( Ngo et al. 2018). AM, otherwise known as 3D printing, is a fast-growing technique that is making a revolution in the manufacturing ...
Similar publications
CircularSeas European Project, as part of the European Union Circular Economy [1], aims at promoting the Green Economy by encouraging the development of green products, parts and components by Maritime Industries. The strategy is a combination of Circular Economy principles, with the use of ocean plastic waste for developing new greener materials,...
Citations
... An increased demand and production of polymeric materials, which are often treated as disposable, result in increased waste collection and negative environmental impact. Therefore, the polymer market has recently witnessed the optimal use of resources by recycling polymer materials to reduce waste and use of new raw materials, creating biodegradable polymers, and modifications involving the addition of natural additives to polymer materials to increase biocompatibility and reduce the negative impact on the environment [6][7][8][9]. ...
Recently, the development of composite materials from agricultural and forestry waste has become an attractive area of research. The use of bio-waste is beneficial for economic and environmental reasons, adapting it to cost effectiveness and environmental sustainability. In the presented study, the possibility of using hazelnut shell (HS) and hydrotalcite (HT) mineral filler was investigated. The effects of fillers in the amount of 10 wt.% on selected properties of polyurethane composites, such as rheological properties (dynamic viscosity, processing times), mechanical properties (compressive strength, flexural strength, hardness), insulating properties (thermal conductivity), and flame-retardant properties (e.g., ignition time, limiting oxygen index, peak heat release), were investigated. Polyurethane foams containing fillers have been shown to have better performance properties compared to unmodified polyurethane foams. For example, the addition of 10 wt% of hydrotalcite filler leads to PU composite foams with improved compression strength (improvement by ~20%), higher flexural strength (increase of ~38%), and comparable thermal conductivity (0.03055 W m–1 K–1 at 20 °C). Moreover, the incorporation of organic fillers has a positive effect on the fire resistance of PU materials. For example, the results from the cone calorimeter test showed that the incorporation of 10 wt% of hydrotalcite filler significantly reduced the peak of the heat release rate (pHRR) by ca. 30% compared with that of unmodified PU foam, and increased the value of the limiting oxygen index from 19.8% to 21.7%.
... It offers advantages such as minimal preparation time for machine startup, reduced waste production compared to conventional machining methods, and the ability to achieve high dimensional accuracy while enabling the production of complex geometries [8], [9]. As the majority of additive manufacturing (AM) systems offer the capability to 3D print with a diverse range of feedstock materials, the potential for recycling using this technology becomes evident [10], [11]. Furthermore, some commercial or DIY systems empower users to experiment with materials such as polymers, resins, and metals derived from laboratory research [12]- [15]. ...
... Zander (2019) shows the increasing interest in using recycled plastics in material extrusion additive manufacturing, emphasising the low rate of plastic recycling, estimated at approximately 9.5%. Shanmugam et al. (2020) explored the opportunities for using recycled polymer (plastic) materials in additive manufacturing processes and their ability to accommodate a design towards a circular economy. Kunovjanek and Reiner (2020) showed that additive manufacturing could directly reduce raw materials inventory by approximately 4%. ...
Adopting innovative technologies such as blockchain and additive manufacturing can help organisations promote the development of additive symbiotic networks, thus pursuing higher sustainable goals and implementing circular economy strategies. These symbiotic networks correspond to industrial symbiosis networks in which wastes and by-products from other industries are incorporated into additive manufacturing processes. The adoption of blockchain technology in such a context is still in a nascent stage. Using the case study method, this research demonstrates the adoption of blockchain technology in an additive symbiotic network of a real-life context. The requirements to use a blockchain network are identified, and an architecture based on smart contracts is proposed as an enabler of the additive symbiotic network under study. The proposed solution uses the Hyperledger Fabric Attribute-Based Access Control as the distributed ledger technology. Even though this solution is still in the proof-of-concept stage, the results show that adopting it would allow the elimination of intermediary entities, keep available tracking records of the resources exchanged, and improve trust among the symbiotic stakeholders (that do not have any trust or cooperation mechanisms established before the symbiotic relationship). This study highlights that the complexity associated with introducing a novel technology and the technology’s immaturity compared to other data storage technologies are some of the main challenges related to using blockchain technology in additive symbiotic networks.
... Plastic pollution is one of the most serious issues confronting the modern world, and it has been compounded in recent years by the COVID-19 pandemic, which has resulted in the overuse of personal protective equipment (e.g., masks, gloves, aprons, face shields, and disinfection bottles) [1,2]. Global plastic production has continuously increased over the past 70 years, from 2 million tons in 1950 to 400.3 million metric tons in 2022, as illustrated in Figure 1a [3,4]. The most concerning data indicate that over half of the world's plastic manufacturing has been commercialized in the last 20 years, and it is predicted to expand to almost 600 million metric tons in 2050 (Figure 1a) [5]. ...
... As can be observed in Figure 1b, "packaging" is the largest sector of usage for plastics, accounting for nearly 44% of annual global production in 2021 [9]. Hence, the increased use of plastic, mainly for food and beverage packaging, is due to advantages such as low [3][4][5]. (b) Distribution of the global plastics use in 2021 by sector of application (numeric data from [9]). ...
Plastic pollution has escalated into a critical global issue, with production soaring from 2 million metric tons in 1950 to 400.3 million metric tons in 2022. The packaging industry alone accounts for nearly 44% of this production, predominantly utilizing polyethylene terephthalate (PET). Alarmingly, over 90% of the approximately 1 million PET bottles sold every minute end up in landfills or oceans, where they can persist for centuries. This highlights the urgent need for sustainable management and recycling solutions to mitigate the environmental impact of PET waste. To better understand PET’s behavior and promote its management within a circular economy, we examined its chemical and physical properties, current strategies in the circular economy, and the most effective recycling methods available today. Advancing PET management within a circular economy framework by closing industrial loops has demonstrated benefits such as reduced landfill waste, minimized energy consumption, and conserved raw resources. To this end, we identified and examined various strategies based on R-imperatives (ranging from 3R to 10R), focusing on the latest approaches aimed at significantly reducing PET waste by 2040. Additionally, a comparison of PET recycling methods (including primary, secondary, tertiary, and quaternary recycling, along with the concepts of “zero-order” and biological recycling techniques) was envisaged. Particular attention was paid to the heterogeneous catalytic glycolysis, which stands out for its rapid reaction time (20–60 min), high monomer yields (>90%), ease of catalyst recovery and reuse, lower costs, and enhanced durability. Accordingly, the use of highly efficient oxide-based catalysts for PET glycolytic degradation is underscored as a promising solution for large-scale industrial applications.
... In the algorithm realization, numerous literature sources and their solutions were used (Lahrour & Brissaud, 2018;Sartal et al., 2020). In the algorithm, remanufacturing is included in a closed loop during the realization of the plastic model and the conversion of plastic waste into filament (Shanmugam et al., 2020). Customers influence product redesign. ...
The paper presents the 7R algorithm of the circular economy principle in realizing wearable sensors. The application of additive manufacturing in the realization of sensors is essential from the point of view of sustainable production, which starts from the material and ends with its recycling process. All seven principles and their connection with additive manufacturing as a critical element in the circular economy are presented. The paper defines the theoretical framework for realizing a sustainable wearable sensor. The production of such sensors primarily refers to the application of flexible 3D printing and electronic components that can be quickly replaced, modified, disassembled, and recycled.
... Worldwide, statistics on plastic waste show a dizzying increase in quantity over the last few years [4] [5]. Indeed, in recent years, global plastic production has risen considerably, from 2 million tonnes in 1950 to approximately 360 million tonnes in 2019 [6]. The favorable physicochemical characteristics of these materials make them ideal materials for various industries, from food packaging, automotive, electronics, textiles and building to construction and medicine. ...
... They are composed of chemicals such as bisphenol A and bisphenol S, which penetrate biological systems and are toxic to health [10]. While some studies have focused on the general public's evaluation and perception of plastic consumption and their awareness of plastics' direct and indirect effects on human health [6], others have highlighted these effects in detail [2] [8] [11]. For example, plastic has been shown to cause endocrine disruption in infants [7] and to increase short-term mortality and morbidity in an urban community exposed to the atmospheric byproducts of a large polyvinyl chloride plastic fire [12]. ...
Background: Plastic pollution is the accumulation of waste composed of plastic and its derivatives all over the environment. Whether in the form of visible garbage or microparticles, as it slowly degrades, plastic pollution poses significant threats to terrestrial and aquatic habitats and the wildlife that call them home, whether through ingestion, entanglement or exposure to the chemicals contained in the material. Unfortunately, there is a lack of documentation on the impact of plastic waste on human health in low-and middle-income countries (LMICs). Methods: We searched five electronic databases (PubMed, Embase, Global Health, CINAHL and Web of Science) and gray literature, following the preferred reporting elements for systematic reviews and meta-analyses (PRISMA), for the impact of plastic waste on human health in developing countries. We included quantitative and qualitative studies written in English and French. We assessed the quality of the included articles using the Mixed Methods Appraisal tool (MMAT). Results: A total of 3779 articles were initially identified by searching electronic databases. After eliminating duplicates, 3167 articles were reviewed based on title and abstract, and 26
... However, the global recycling rate for LIBs is still less than 5% [59]. To tackle this problem and reduce the world's reliance on virgin materials, the CE approach suggests two strategies: recycling LIBs to recover raw materials such as lithium, cobalt, and manganese and re-using LIBs in stationary energy systems or other applications [60,61]. Additionally, innovative recycling technologies are poised to increase the efficiency of material recovery and reduce waste. ...
A Life Cycle Assessment (LCA) quantifies the environmental impacts during the life of a product from cradle to grave. It evaluates energy use, material flow, and emissions at each stage of life. This report addresses the challenges and potential solutions related to the surge in electric vehicle (EV) batteries in the United States amidst the EV market’s exponential growth. It focuses on the environmental and economic implications of disposal as well as the recycling of lithium-ion batteries (LIBs). With millions of EVs sold in the past decade, this research highlights the necessity of efficient recycling methods to mitigate environmental damage from battery production and disposal. Utilizing a Life Cycle Assessment (LCA) and Life Cycle Cost Assessment (LCCA), this research compares emissions and costs between new and recycled batteries by employing software tools such as SimaPro V7 and GREET V2. The findings indicate that recycling batteries produces a significantly lower environmental impact than manufacturing new units from new materials and is economically viable as well. This research also emphasizes the importance of preparing for the upcoming influx of used EV batteries and provides suggestions for future research to optimize the disposal and recycling of EV batteries.
... Meanwhile, the reusability, health, and carbon emission management of additive manufacturing materials are new opportunities for the future [78]. For example, the recycling and reuse of polymers in additive manufacturing have led to improved productivity and sustainability in the circular economy [79]. On the other hand, AI technology can be used to assist designers in making decisions on the design, manufacturing, and assembly of complex products together with smart machines integrated into the IoT, providing enormous potential for energy conservation and emission reductions. ...
Industry 5.0 is an emerging value-driven manufacturing model in which human–machine interface-oriented intelligent manufacturing is one of the core concepts. Based on the theoretical human–cyber–physical system (HCPS), a reference framework for human–machine collaborative additive manufacturing for Industry 5.0 is proposed. This framework establishes a three-level product–economy–ecology model and explains the basic concept of human–machine collaborative additive manufacturing by considering the intrinsic characteristics and functional evolution of additive manufacturing technology. Key enabling technologies for product development process design are discussed, including the Internet of Things (IoT), artificial intelligence (AI), digital twin (DT) technology, extended reality, and intelligent materials. Additionally, the typical applications of human–machine collaborative additive manufacturing in the product, economic, and ecological layers are discussed, including personalized product design, interactive manufacturing, human–machine interaction (HMI) technology for the process chain, collaborative design, distributed manufacturing, and energy conservation and emission reductions. By developing the theory of the HCPS, for the first time its core concepts, key technologies, and typical scenarios are systematically elaborated to promote the transformation of additive manufacturing towards the Industry 5.0 paradigm of human–machine collaboration and to better meet the personalized needs of users.
... Globally, the recycling rate of LIBs remains very low, with less than 5% of LIBs being recycled, leading to significant environmental pollution and increased reliance on virgin raw materials [82,83]. To address these challenges, the CE model proposes two main strategies: recycling to recover valuable metals, such as lithium, cobalt, and manganese, and repurposing LIBs for second-life applications in stationary energy storage systems or other applications [84,85]. These strategies not only prevent harmful waste but also ensure the optimal utilization of valuable resources, highlighting the critical need for optimized recycling processes that minimize waste and are cost-effective. ...
This article focuses on the reuse and recycling of end-of-life (EOL) lithium-ion batteries (LIB) in the USA in the context of the rapidly growing electric vehicle (EV) market. Due to the recent increase in the enactment of both current and pending regulations concerning EV battery recycling, this work focuses on the recycling aspect for lithium-ion batteries rather than emphasizing the reuse of EOL batteries (although these practices have value and utility). A comparative analysis of various recycling methods is presented, including hydrometallurgy, pyrometallurgy, direct recycling, and froth flotation. The efficiency and commercial viability of these individual methods are highlighted. This article also emphasizes the practices and capabilities of leading companies, noting their current superior annual processing capacities. The transportation complexities of lithium-ion batteries are also discussed, noting that they are classified as hazardous materials and that stringent safety standards are needed for their handling. The study underscores the importance of recycling in mitigating environmental risks associated with EOL of LIBs and facilitates comparisons among the diverse recycling processes and capacities among key players in the industry.
... Reuse is the main route to a circular economy since this process reduces CO2 emissions and uses energy, minerals, and raw materials, all of which benefit the environment, public health, and human development. Shanmugam et al. (2020) illustrate that reuse can offer better manufacturing solutions to facilitate productivity along with clean air, water, food, and suitable habitats. For instance, reusing polymers to produce products for additive and subtractive manufacturing can offer low carbon intensity and carbon footprint, supporting human development and ensuring a healthy environment. ...
The circular economy has garnered significant consideration due to its ability to contribute to human development. This study presents a comprehensive analysis of the individual effects of four categories of circular economy, namely renewable energy consumption (REC), recycle, reuse, and repair, on human development. For this purpose, we collected time series data of Germany from 1990 to 2021 and applied a dynamic ARDL simulation technique to compile empirical results. The findings show that the REC has positive and significant impact on human development. Reuse and Recycle have an inverse and significant influence on human development in Germany. Whereas human development is neutral to repair. Additionally, the control variables, environmental tax and industrial employment also have negative impacts on human development. Based on the findings, the study suggests that policymakers should design suitable, efficient, and targeted measures to foster the role of each category of circular economy for human development in Germany.
Graphical abstract
We examined the impact of various categories of circular economy on human development in Germany. The findings indicate that REC is positively and significantly associated with human development. The repair has a neutral impact on human development as a category of circular economy. The study also finds that reuse and recycling negatively and significantly affect human development in Germany.