Fig 2 - uploaded by Vishwambhar Prasad Sati
Content may be subject to copyright.
a Landslide on the Rishikesh-Badrinath National High Way, b landslide between two villages opposite of Gopeshwar town, c a huge landslide above Asina village below, submergence of village due to reservoir of Tehri high dam and d village in the periphery of Tehri high dam getting cracks and being submerged due to reservoir (Photo by the author)
Source publication
Abstract The Himalaya is known for its rich biodiversity, and it supports the Indian
subcontinent with wide varieties of natural resources including the life-sustaining water. Its
huge potential to develop micro-hydropower projects is untapped. Large-scale multi-purpose
river valley projects are not feasible as the landscape of Garhwal region is hi...
Contexts in source publication
Context 1
... landscape of the Garhwal region is highly vulnerable as it is ecologically fragile, geologically unstable and tectonically and seismically very active. It has been found to be tectonically active as indicated (Valdiya 2001;Sati et al. 2007;Bilham et al. 2001 and rockfalls. These hazards are intensive and frequent, and very common in Garhwal region. There are many incidences where the large areas were devastated due to cloud- burst-triggered debris flow and flash floods (Sati 2007). Flash flood on 16 and 17 June 2013 in the Kedarnath and Badrinath valleys that led to death of [10,000 people is the recent incident (Sati 2013). Landslide hazards are very common along the road and on the course of the rivers and their tributaries. Because of this, many villages are under vulnerable situation (Fig. 2a, b). The construction activities such as road, hydropower and mining further accentuate the fragility and instability of landscape. The high intensity and fre- quency of atmospheric hazards do not geologically support the construction of large-scale hydropower projects. Even, for the construction of micro-hydropower projects, site should be scientifically chosen, considering the fragility of terrain and human occupancy. The state should pay adequate attention to these issues before constructing hydropower pro- jects. All related aspects such as landscape vulnerability and rehabilitation issues should be taken into account, and it is the responsibility of the state to ensure the local people participation in dam construction ...
Context 2
... construction needs a lot of employment as unskilled and skilled labour. Priority should be given to the local young people in recruitment because they are the main sufferers 6. Partial shareholders A share of benefits from the hydropower project should be given to the affected people for the other indirect losses of the Asia's highest hydropower project, Tehri high dam, is facing two catastrophes, i.e. submergence of land-agricultural and settlement and huge landslide, which is almost on the head of the village (Fig. 2c). Further, the dilemma of Asina village is that it does not come under any categories of compensation packages. There are many instances where many villages, located in the periphery of Tehri high dam's reservoir, are facing the similar problem, as there are 36 landslides existing around it. Health hazard is enormous as methane gas is releasing from the stable water of Tehri high dam's reservoir (Fig. 2d). This whole area is located in a highly sensitive zone, and any time near future, there are possibilities of severe catastrophe in the form of earthquake. It is important to note that the economically backward people, who are landless and working in the field of those who have agricultural land within the villages, are the worst affected due to dam construction and submergence of agricultural land because they are not able to manage their ...
Context 3
... construction needs a lot of employment as unskilled and skilled labour. Priority should be given to the local young people in recruitment because they are the main sufferers 6. Partial shareholders A share of benefits from the hydropower project should be given to the affected people for the other indirect losses of the Asia's highest hydropower project, Tehri high dam, is facing two catastrophes, i.e. submergence of land-agricultural and settlement and huge landslide, which is almost on the head of the village (Fig. 2c). Further, the dilemma of Asina village is that it does not come under any categories of compensation packages. There are many instances where many villages, located in the periphery of Tehri high dam's reservoir, are facing the similar problem, as there are 36 landslides existing around it. Health hazard is enormous as methane gas is releasing from the stable water of Tehri high dam's reservoir (Fig. 2d). This whole area is located in a highly sensitive zone, and any time near future, there are possibilities of severe catastrophe in the form of earthquake. It is important to note that the economically backward people, who are landless and working in the field of those who have agricultural land within the villages, are the worst affected due to dam construction and submergence of agricultural land because they are not able to manage their ...
Similar publications
Climate change impacts in the mountains of the HKH are already substantive. Increased climate variability is already affecting water availability, ecosystem services, and agricultural production, and extreme weather is causing flash floods, landslides, and debris flow. Climate change is likely to have serious effects in the next decades in the moun...
Environmental challenges, including climate change-influenced weather extremes over the hilly region, are a major issue for the sustenance/ livelihood of Uttarakhand Himalayan biodiversity. The very high maximum temperature during summer days makes the area vulnerable to frequent forest fires, while the increasing frequency of intense rainfall prov...
Extreme rainfall events leading to the occurrence of flash floods and cloudbursts are common in the Himalaya. Bhagsu nala in McLeod Ganj area of Dharamshala township, Himachal Pradesh has witnessed the worst flash flood in the morning of 12 th July 2021 causing damage to property and infrastructure in the region. Though the catchment area of the Bh...
This paper examines the environmental and economic impact of cloudburst triggered debris flows and flash floods in the Himalaya. A case study of four villages affected by cloudburst calamity was conducted. Data were gathered by a household-level survey of affected villages and households. The authors visited the affected villages immediately after...
Uttarakhand, the devbhoomi, is one of the major pilgrimage centre in the country. The chardham yatra attracts lakhs of tourist every year. Indeed, the pilgrimage tourism is a major contributor in the state"s economy. This tourism suffered a harsh blow in June 2013 flash floods of Kedarnath which killed thousands of pilgrims and left many stranded....
Citations
... This has resulted in significant changes in the land use pattern. In the Tehri high dam reservoir, a total of 114 villages were fully or partially submerged (Sati, 2014). Additionally, Tehri town and some other towns were fully submerged. ...
This paper examines land use and land cover dynamics in the Central Himalaya using twelve Landsat satellite images from 1991 and 2021. It also delves with the factors affecting land use and land cover change in the Central Himalaya. Processed with specialised remote sensing/GIS software (ArcGIS 10.8), false colour composites were generated, and a supervised classification with a maximum likelihood process was employed to create a land use and land cover map. Eight land use classes were identified, including snow cover, alpine pasturelands, temperate forest, tropical broadleaf forest, agricultural land, barren land, built up areas, and water bodies. Forests dominate the region (56.7%), followed by glaciers (20%) and alpine pasturelands (9.67%). Notably, snow cover and alpine pasturelands decreased by 21.59% and 7.28 %, respectively. Two land use categories-water bodies and barren land increased by above 100% whereas agricultural land increased by 60.59%. There was a nominal increase in subtropical forests while temperate forests cover remained the same with an accuracy of 86.89 % (Kappa Coefficient). In some patches, temperate forests decreased due to the expansion of pine forests towards high altitudes. Warming of middle altitudes and higher reaches noticed as the major factor of decreasing snow cover. Population growth, out-migration, climate change, and natural hazards were other primary reasons for land use and land cover change.
... The places where they have been resettled are often converted again for new development projects, leading to additional rehabilitation issues. It is frequently observed that the dam projects are planned without involving the local community, exacerbating the panic surrounding rehabilitation, particularly in Garhwal Himalaya (Sati, 2014). ...
... The Garhwal Himalaya has been a witness to numerous prolonged agitations against the construction of river valley dam projects, primarily centered about environmental impacts and the rehabilitation of the affected people. Table 7 outlines some of the prominent river valley dam projects in the region (Sati, 2014). These projects encountered substantial opposition, primarily due to environmental impacts and challenges associated with the rehabilitation of the affected people. ...
With the population growth through natural growth and migration, coupled with the city expansion, it is the fact that Dehradun City in India faces severe water scarcity. Therefore, the Song Dam Drinking Water Project (SDDWP) is proposed to provide ample drinking water to Dehradun City and its suburban areas. This paper examined economic significance and environmental impacts of the SDDWP in Garhwal Himalaya, India. To conduct this study, we collected data from both primary and secondary sources. There are 12 villages and 3 forest divisions in the surrounding areas of the proposed dam project, of which 3 villages will be fully submerged and 50 households will be affected. For this study, 50 heads of the households were interviewed in the 3 submerged villages. The questions mainly focused on economic significance, environmental impacts, and rehabilitation issues of the dam project. The findings of this study indicate that economic significance of the dam project is substantial, including providing ample water for drinking and irrigation, contributing to groundwater recharge, creating job opportunities, and promoting the development of tourism and fisheries in the Doon Valley. In terms of the rehabilitation of the affected people, there are only 50 households in need of rehabilitation. Currently, the arable land of these affected people is not sufficient to sustain their livelihoods. The entire landscape is fragile, rugged, and precipitous; therefore, the affected people are willing to
rehabilitate to more suitable areas in the Doon Valley. Moreover, it is essential to provide them with sufficient compensation packages including the compensation of arable land, houses, cash, common property resources, institutions, belongingness, and cultural adaptation. On the other hand, the proposed dam project will have adverse environmental impacts including arable land degradation, forest degradation, loss of fauna and flora, soil erosion, landslides, and soil siltation. These impacts will lead to the ecological imbalances in both upstream and downstream areas. This study suggests that the affected people should be given sufficient compensation packages in all respects. Afforestation programs can be launched in the degraded areas to compensate for the loss of forest in the affected areas.
... The author also emphasized the increasing incidents of cloudburst-triggered debris flows/flash floods in Uttarakhand Himalaya and suggested its mechanism, prevention, and mitigation measures (Sati 2018a(Sati , b, 2020. Further, Sati (2006Sati ( , 2009Sati ( , 2011Sati ( , 2014 investigated the vulnerability of people living in the disaster-prone areas of the Uttarakhand Himalaya and highlighted their rehabilitation issues. ...
The Uttarakhand Himalaya is highly prone to geo-hydrological disasters—landslides, flash floods, cloudbursts, debris flows, rock falls, extreme weather, and land submergence. Cloudbursts and glacier bursts generally trigger these disasters, which are very active and frequent in the Uttarakhand Himalaya and occur mainly during the monsoon season. This study examines the geo-hydrological disasters in the Uttarakhand Himalaya, which occurred from 2020 to 2023 mainly during the three months of Monsoon season. Further, the study assesses the magnitude of the disaster and maps the disaster hotspot areas. Both qualitative and quantitative approaches were used to conduct this study. Data on geo-hydrological hazards that occurred from 2020 to 2023 in Uttarakhand were gathered from multiple sources such as the records of the State Disaster Management Department, Dehradun, various media reports—print and electronic, and personal observation of some affected areas through field visits. Further, an empirical study of the Bandal and Song River valleys was conducted. These valleys were severely hit by a cloudburst-triggered flash flood and debris flow. Household-level survey of the damage caused by huge flash floods and debris flows in three villages of Bandal Valley was carried out. The data were analyzed and mapped and the Uttarakhand Himalaya was divided into disaster hotspots and frequency zones. ArcGIS was used to construct maps and the Google Earth imagery and Sentinel 1-SAR were the major sources of maps. This study recommends that the construction of settlements, infrastructural facilities, and economic avenues should be banned in the most disaster-affected areas, along river valleys, and on fragile slopes. Eco-disaster risk reduction, such as conserving forests and wetlands, and plantation drives in the most degraded areas such as the river banks and fragile slopes, can help communities to prepare for disasters.
... Majority of the human settlements in hilly terrain occur along the river valleys on fluvial terraces, paleo-landslide deposits, and active flood plains owing to gentle-gradient topography, agricultural/ commercial land availability, and more access to livelihood (Sati, 2015;Taloor et al., 2021). Such preferences of settlement, however, are subjected to risk of subsidence and slope failure in fluvial terraces that often result in loss of houses, agricultural land, and human lives (Sati, 2015;Sundriyal et al., 2015;Srivastava et al., 2017). ...
... Majority of the human settlements in hilly terrain occur along the river valleys on fluvial terraces, paleo-landslide deposits, and active flood plains owing to gentle-gradient topography, agricultural/ commercial land availability, and more access to livelihood (Sati, 2015;Taloor et al., 2021). Such preferences of settlement, however, are subjected to risk of subsidence and slope failure in fluvial terraces that often result in loss of houses, agricultural land, and human lives (Sati, 2015;Sundriyal et al., 2015;Srivastava et al., 2017). The Alaknanda valley, Uttarakhand (NW Himalaya) has been subjected to two extreme climatic-geomorphic events; 16 th June 2013 and 7 th Feb., 2021 that resulted in floods and/or debris flows affecting various settlements along the valley, which were situated on fluvial terraces or flood plains (Martha et al., 2015;Sundriyal et al., 2015;Rana et al., 2021). ...
Growing human population along the river valleys in hilly terrain particularly on the fluvial sediments poses increasing risk of terrace instability and subsequent failure. Such instability and failure result in frequent loss of settlement, agricultural lands, and often lives. Alaknanda River valley in Uttarakhand comprises many fluvial terrace slopes that accommodate human settlement and hence one such fluvial terrace slope was taken as a case study area. On Feb. 28, 2022, Saari (or Sari) village, situated on the fluvial sequence, witnessed a slope failure collapsing 3 houses but no casualties. The hillslope with a total disturbed area of 3889±5.0 m 2 and failed material volume of ~16858±4.3 m 3 partially dammed a tributary of Alaknanda River, which passes through the toe of the failed slope. The present study is an attempt to understand the instability that led to such failure because there was no extreme rainfall or earthquake prior to this failure. Pre-and post-failure topography of slope was used to demarcate the detachment and deposition zones. Pre-failure topography was used to perform the Finite Element Method (FEM) based slope stability simulation. In order to evaluate the possible contribution of exposed rockmass in failure, kinematic analysis was also performed. Results revealed the development of displacement pattern, particularly due to anthropogenic loads that must have initiated this failure. Such studies are primary requisites for an effective disaster mitigation in the NW Himalaya where growing human population on fragile hillslopes are at risk.
... However, a large number of hydropower stations have been built because of the demand for clean energy (Zhou & Chen 2012, Gyanwali et al. 2020. The construction of a hydropower station changes the surface structure on a large scale and results in vegetation destruction and strong ecosystem disturbance (Sati 2015). Take Xiangjiaba hydropower station as an example, the disturbed area accounts for more than 50% of the total construction area (Zhou et al. 2016, Xue et al. 2016a. ...
The MEWOU river, which crosses the town of Bafoussam, is one of the main sources of drinking water and irrigation for the populations who live there. It is subject to intense agricultural and industrial activity all along its banks. Soap and refined oil factories generate pollution in the form of liquid effluents which are discharged without any form of treatment. The objective of this study is to assess the impact of soap factory effluent discharges on the quality of the surrounding water. In total, seven samples were analyzed during March, April, and May of the year 2021. The results we obtained were analyzed according to the regulatory requirements recommended by the Directives for the quality of drinking water and the Algerian standard relating to the limit values of the physico-chemical parameters. The results we obtained showed signs of significant pollution in particular: chemical oxygen demand (COD: 125.32-959 mg.L-1), 5 days-biochemical oxygen demand (BOD5: 23-99 mg.L-1 ), turbidity (2-520 NTU), TDS (130-13430 mg.L-1), Nitrite (4.96-21327.44 mg.L-1) and many other parameters greatly exceed those required by the international standard, we also noted strong pollution with heavy metals: chromium (35.76-1381.08 mg.L-1), lead (0.21 - 2.49 mg.L-1), iron (0.28- 17.82 mg.L-1), and cadmium (0.03-0.19 mg.L-1) which are above the values prescribed by the WHO. These highly polluted effluents released into the natural environment are harmful to the environment, biodiversity, and human health. This state of affairs requires urgent intervention to preserve the ecological balance. Otherwise, it can constitute a risk for public health in the short term by deteriorating the quality of the underground reservoir known as the main source of water supply for neighboring populations.
... Debris flows and flash floods caused by glacierbursts incidences were although not much frequent and intensive yet, during the recent past, their number has increased owing to changes in the climatic conditions. The increasing number of infrastructural facilities on the valley bottom has accelerated damages owing to exposed elements in risk-prone areas (Sati 2014;ICI-MOD 2007a, b;Chalise and Khanal 2001;Bhandari 1994;Uttarakhand 2017). Many drivers exist, which affect the severity of cloudburst-triggered hazards in the Uttarakhand Himalaya. ...
This paper examines the environmental and economic impact of cloudburst-triggered debris flow and flash flood in four villages of Uttarkashi district, Uttarakhand Himalaya. On 18th July 2021 at 8:30 p.m., a cloudburst took place on the top of the Hari Maharaj Parvat, which triggered a huge debris flows and flash floods, affecting 143 households of four villages of downstream areas. Immediately after the cloudburst occurred, the authors visited four affected villages—Nirakot, Mando, Kankrari, and Siror. A structured questionnaire was constructed and questions were framed and asked from 143 heads of affected households on the impact of debris flows and flash floods on people’s life, settlements, cowsheds, bridges, trees, forests, and arable land in and around the villages. The volume of debris, boulders, pebbles, gravels, and mud was assessed. It was noticed that all four villages got lots of destructions in terms of loss of life—people and animals, and property damage—land, crops, and infrastructural facilities. This study shows that the location of the settlements along with the proximity of the streams, which are very violent during the monsoon season, has led to the high impact of debris flow on the affected villages. We suggest that the old inhabited areas, which are located in the risk zones, can be relocated and the new settlements can be constructed in safe places using suitability analyses.
... Glacial Lack Outbursts Floods (GLOF) and snow avalanches/glacier bursts occur less often but also represent a significant risk of triggering natural and human losses due to their great intensity. However, during the recent past, the number of 'glacier bursts' has increased due to changes in climate conditions, and the damages has incresased due to exposed elements in risk-prone areas such as infrastructural facilities constructed on valley bottoms (Byers et al., 2019;Sati, 2014 a;ICIMOD, 2007;Chalise and Khanal, 2001;ICIMOD, 2007;Bhandari, 1994;Baofeng and Constantine, 2017). Further, high variability and change in climate conditions have increased the frequency and intensity of weather-induced debris flows, flash floods, and landslides in Uttarakhand (2017). ...
The territory of the Uttarakhand Himalaya is highly susceptible to meteorological and geophysical hazards. Earthquakes, cloudburst-triggered landslides, debris flows, and flash floods are very common, frequent, intensive, and devastating. Snow avalanches/glacier outbursts are rare however, they are very dangerous. This article examines the Rishi and Dhauli Ganga tragedy that occurred due to glacier outbursts on February 7, 2021 in the source area of Rishi Ganga i.e., ‘the Nanda Devi glacier’ in Chamoli district, Uttarakhand. It describes the major drivers, which triggered debris flows/flash floods in the Rishi and Dhauli Ganga valleys and illustrates its consequences. The calamity has led to the loss of approximately Rs. 20000 million and the death of about 205 people. Land degradation, loss of soils and forests, and formation of landslide scars in the affected areas were the other consequences. This study suggests several policy measures to reduce the casualties related to natural hazard processes.
... However, a large number of hydropower stations have been built because of the demand for clean energy (Zhou & Chen 2012, Gyanwali et al. 2020. The construction of a hydropower station changes the surface structure on a large scale and results in vegetation destruction and strong ecosystem disturbance (Sati 2015). Take Xiangjiaba hydropower station as an example, the disturbed area accounts for more than 50% of the total construction area (Zhou et al. 2016, Xue et al. 2016a. ...
The objective of this study is to understand the characteristics of vegetation communities under different vegetation eco-restoration models (vegetation concrete eco-restoration technique, frame beam filling soil technique, thick layer base material spraying technique, and external soil spray seeding technique). Vegetation coverage, dominant species, species composition, and species diversity of vegetation community under different vegetation eco-restoration modes were analyzed by field survey. The vegetation community of the abandoned slag slope was unstable due to the simple vegetation community structure. The species and number of the thick layer base material spraying slope were low and fail to form a healthy multilayer community structure due to invade of Leucaena leucocephala (Lam.) de Wit. Studying the allelopathy of Leucaena leucocephala (Lam.) de Wit and seeking the best species composition that can coexist with it is significant to promote the positive succession of the vegetation community. The frame beam filling soil technique, external-soil spray seeding technique, and vegetation concrete eco-restoration technique can effectively promote the succession process of the vegetation community and have well water and soil conservation capacity. These findings suggest that artificial vegetation eco-restoration measures can effectively promote vegetation eco-restoration and the positive succession of vegetation community of disturbed slopes. The research results can provide scientific advice for vegetation eco-restoration and subsequent control and management of disturbed slopes in the Xiangjiaba project, and also can be helpful to other similar projects.
... Many studies have been carried out on glacier lake outburst oods and cloudburst triggered debris ows and ash oods in the Himalaya ( Sati 2006Sati , 2007Sati , 2009Sati , 2011Sati , 2014Sati , 2013Sati , 2019Sati , 2020Naithani 2011). These studies were conducted in broader perspectives and most of them were conceptualized. ...
This paper examines the environmental and economic impact of cloudburst triggered debris flows and flash floods in the Himalaya. A case study of four villages affected by cloudburst calamity was conducted. Data were gathered by a household-level survey of affected villages and households. The authors visited the affected villages immediately after the cloudburst calamity and interviewed the head of all affected households. A total of 143 households were surveyed. First, the damage of houses, cowsheds, bridges, trees (forests and fruits) dislocation, degradation of total land along the streams and arable land in and around the villages were measured with the help of the head of households (environmental impact). The volume of debris, boulders, pebbles, gravels and mud was measured. Economic valuation of all losses was noted (economic impact). This study finds out that a large area of all villages was severely affected by cloudburst triggered debris flow and flash flood, because, they are located in a severely vulnerable landscape. This study reveals that Nirakot village needs to be rehabilitated entirely and in other villages all households, which are severely affected need to be rehabilitated as soon as possible to escape from the future cloudburst catastrophe.
... Himalayan ecosystems, recognised as diverse and fragile, have borne the brunt of extensive and rapid land use change with modern development (Batar et al., 2017;Malik et al., 2016). In recent years climatic hazards, such as landslides, floods and forest fires, have further destabilised mountain slopes and forest landscapes (Batar et al., 2017;Jamwal et al., 2019;Kuniyal et al., 2019;Sati, 2014). However, an unprecedented scale of land-use change in Himalayan river valleys is now clearly attributed to the proliferation of hydropower development, which has in turn unleashed a new set of challenges for the local terrestrial ecosystems over a short period of two decades (Grumbine & Ministry of Environment, Forests and Climate Change (MoEF & CC) under the provisions of the Forest Conservation Act, 1980 (FCA), does not effectively scrutinise forest loss as a result of development projects in general. ...
... Not just the forest land diversion, but even the transfer of forest land for 'compensatory afforestation' activities which affects community uses and rights, mandates consent under FRA, which is rarely ever sought (Ghosh et al., 2019;K. B. Saxena, 2019) Growing local opposition to these projects has been driven by the ecological and socio-economic impacts mentioned in the study (Asher, 2019;Baruah, 2016;Sati, 2014;Vibha Arora, 2007). The official enviro-legal impact assessment process has failed in engaging with the full nature of impacts and responding to the issues raised during official public consultation processes. ...
Fragile ecosystems of the Himalayas have seen rampant land-use changes in recent times due to proliferation of hydropower development promoted as a climate change mitigation strategy for global energy transition. Further, in order to mitigate the loss of forest lands diverted for hydropower projects, countries like India have compensatory afforestation policies, which have meant more physical interference in natural landscapes, whose long-term consequences remain under-researched. This study conducted between 2012 and 2016 uses information from government data and ground research to examine the extent, nature and impact of forest diversion for hydropower projects in the remote, ecologically vulnerable Kinnaur Division of Himachal Pradesh in the Western Himalayas. It also studies the implementation of ‘compensatory afforestation’ undertaken as a ‘mitigation’ strategy as part of this forest diversion process. The study found that not only have construction activities for hydropower projects impacted existing land-use, disturbed forest biodiversity and fragmented the forest landscape, but the related compensatory afforestation plantations are also ridden with problems. These include abysmally low presence of surviving saplings (upto 10%) interspecies conflict, infringement on local land usage, and damage by wildfires and landslides. The study critically examines the role of state led institutions and global green growth policies in driving and legitimizing these developments in the name of ‘mitigation’, ultimately causing more harm to fragile local ecosystems and communities dependent on these.
