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The Arctic is warming faster than anywhere else on Earth; satellite observations have revealed
the region is losing sea ice at a dramatic rate and this decline is expected to continue. This loss
of sea ice is creating opportunities for shorter global trade links between East Asia and the UK
via the Arctic. The Northern Sea Route and Northwest Passa...
Citations
... Since the 1980s, more than half of the Arctic sea ice has disappeared in summer (Comiso et al., 2018;Comiso et al., 2014;Stroeve et al., 2007), and the 5-year ice reduction rate has been more than 90% (IPCC, 2019). By 2045, more than 82% of Arctic waters will be ice-free in summer (Melia et al., 2017). Pollutant emissions from ships in the Arctic shipping routes have continued to grow in recent years, which further threatening the ecological environment of the Arctic region (Qiong et al., 2022;Zhou et al., 2023). ...
... On the other hand, the increasing temperature also makes the navigation period of the Arctic shipping routes extend year by year. The navigability of conventional ships is increasing, and the navigation environment is improving year by year (Copland et al., 2021;Melia et al., 2017). In the summer of 2008, the Northeast Passage and Northwest Passage were fully opened for the first time, and in August of the following year, the first Arctic shipping routes navigation for merchant ships without icebreakers was realized (Zhu et al., 2015a). ...
Maritime transport plays a crucial role in international trade. As the number and tonnage of ships continue to increase, traditional shipping routes are becoming progressively congested. The development of Arctic shipping routes has the potential to significantly improve trade efficiency and decrease reliance on traditional shipping routes. At the same time, the harsh navigation conditions in the Arctic pose a huge challenge to ships crossing the Arctic shipping routes. To address the above issues, this paper reviews the natural, navigational environment and unique navigational modes of ships in the Arctic shipping routes. Furthermore, the navigational risks caused by factors including low temperature, sea ice, poor visibility, communication, lack of infrastructure, lack of navigational experience, lack of historical data, high collision risk, and complex navigational environment are summarized and analyzed, providing a reference for researchers and policymakers to conduct research related to Arctic shipping routes.
... • Geopolitics can profoundly affect socio-oceanographic systems as well as the way we study them. Numerous examples include such acute cases as risks and security implications of the newly opening Arctic sea routes (e.g., Melia et al., 2017), issues of maritime security in the Horn of Africa and their routes in degradation of marine ecosystems as a result of IUU fishing and toxic waste dumping (Sumaila and Bawumia, 2014), "Mackerel wars" resulting from lack of cooperation on transboundary fish stock management (e.g. Østhagen et al., 2020) or racial inequalities in the fisheries labour and its significance for the fisheries and the blue economy (Clark, 2022). ...
Marine natural sciences have been instrumental in helping society understand how ocean systems operate and the threats they face. However, there is a growing realisation that the societal challenges related to the marine environment can only be addressed through more effective integration with all aspects of social sciences. Nevertheless, to date, social sciences remain insufficiently integrated into marine research. Recognising historical weaknesses and drawing on the authors’ own experience of interdisciplinary research, albeit writing primarily from a natural marine science perspective, we propose a series of steps to promote integrated marine research inclusive of strong social science. We suggest that changing the perspectives and attitudes of natural scientists is key. The inherent interconnectivity between the ocean and society ensures that nearly everything we do in the marine natural sciences has the potential to influence and, perhaps address, ongoing and future societal challenges. Consequently, a key challenge for natural scientists is to recognise and communicate this in an accessible manner outside their own disciplines. To attempt to address these issues, we introduce the concept of “Socio-oceanography” which we define as an area of research that takes a “whole system” approach to the marine environment. It focuses on the challenges which require advancement of both natural and social science components, especially on those where the feedbacks between social and natural components are beginning to emerge. Here, we discuss its scope, challenges to its effective application and key steps to catalyse interdisciplinary approaches using this concept.
... However, there is still ice cover throughout the summer, and transit using the established routes requires either an ice-strengthened hull or an ice-breaker escort. 3 Modern ice breakers create channels in the ice leaving crushed ice between two large sea ice sheets (hereinafter as ice sheets). As the temperatures change, the crushed ice can melt leaving an open channel. ...
This paper presents a combined theoretical and numerical analysis of a ship traveling in open water between rigid ice sheets of finite thickness with the objective to understand how the modeled ice influences the wave resistance and ship wave pattern. The first part of the analysis uses a mathematical model to evaluate the wave resistance in deep-water channels (or an ice sheet that reaches the sea floor). The model is able to separate the contributions of the transverse and divergent waves to the total wave resistance. Significant influence of both the ship speed and channel width is observed to both increase and decrease the wave resistance relative to the open water condition by as much as 50%. The second part of the analysis uses high-resolution computational fluid dynamics (CFD) on a contemporary ship that is traveling between two rigid ice sheets with finite thickness. The CFD simulations identify the critical ice thickness that corresponds to the condition in which the ice sheets function nearly as channel walls. It is found that the effect on the wave resistance is noticeable when the ice is 5% of the fundamental wavelength, and when the ice sheets are thicker than 20% of the fundamental wavelength, the resistance change due to the plates is nearly that of channel walls.
... In winter and spring, the Great Siberian polynya is formed in the Laptev Sea, which is located near the landfast ice border [1][2][3] and creates opportunities for winter navigation in the NSR. [4][5][6] Polynya is also formed in the summer, on rivers near the mouths of seashores. The largest of these ice floes is situated on the Lena River, directly on the route of vessels travelling to the port of Tiksi. ...
... Therefore, the conclusion about climate warming is valid for at least the entire southeastern part of the sea in question. The latter is consistent with existing projections of climate and ice changes in the Arctic seas [3][4][5][6][7][8][9][10]. At the same time, with further climate warming in the Lena basin, the polynya in question will begin to form even before the onset of polar day. ...
The dynamics of the development of the Lena polynya forming in the Laptev Sea and its impact on navigation conditions in the Arctic, in the Laptev Sea, is investigated. The hypothesis is tested that the timing of polynya may have a significant impact on its average growth rate. The results of the GLORYS12v1 global reanalysis and standard methods of mathematical statistics were used in this test. The validity of the hypothesis was confirmed by the example of the section of the polynya located at the mouth of the major navigable channel of the Lena delta Bykovskaya. Stable tendencies of changing the dates of the polynya formation towards earlier dates in the modern period have been revealed. A high probability of improvement of navigation conditions is observed in this region in 2020-2040. However, with further warming of the Siberian climate, the opposite process is possible - the freezing of the polynya that formed too early, which will lead to a colder climate in the region and deterioration of navigation conditions. The selection of general routes for ships in the areas where the polynya is spreading will contribute to more intensive and safer navigation. For this purpose, accurate forecasts of its size and position are required. The relevance of research results for ship traffic forecasting and plans for the use of icebreaker escorts for vessels is noted.
... Conducted review [6] notes that Russia 1 imposes tariffs on the Northern Sea Route, the most favourable shipping route because of its acceptable ice conditions. At the same time, Canada imposes no tariffs on the use of the Northwest Passage, which still has the worse ice navigation conditions. ...
... At the same time, Canada imposes no tariffs on the use of the Northwest Passage, which still has the worse ice navigation conditions. There appears a list of at least three causes of increased risk in polar regions, affecting the development of Arctic routes [6]: ...
The multimodal door-to-door transport chain connecting Central Europe with Far East origins predominantly calls the North European ports. However, already the geographic features are dictating the reasonable possibility of routes’ redirection via several alternatives through the Mediterranean Sea. This study represents the continuation of the research in terms of analysis and evaluation of the Southern European freight transport flow through the Northern Adriatic. The aim was to elaborate further on the justification of the possible redirection of cargoes via the Adriatic corridor. In these terms, the land segment of the transport chain from ports to the final destination was isolated and analysed. The authors were primarily guided by natural features, that are respective geographical locations and their mutual distances. For this purpose, container transport on two traffic flows was simulated, with emphasis on the land segment between the second (destination) port and the final destination. Considering the usual freight lines, the door-to-door container transport between origin and destination was selected. Both road and rail transportation modes were investigated. Besides general parameters, such as distances, time, and fuel consumption, the environmental impact for all scenarios was determined for both downstream and final fuel cycle processes. In these terms, basic environmental parameters for four possible scenarios were calculated: energy consumption, emissions of carbon dioxide, greenhouse gases, nitrogen oxides, sulphur dioxide, non-methane hydrocarbons, and particulate matter. Results are indicating that, together with a significant reduction of sea transportation impacts on the environment, the eventual redirection contributes to emissions’ mitigation and the sustainability of transportation. These results are accompanied by several initiatives in the area. Apart from potential benefits, the findings were discussed from the reliability point of view, i.e. the ability of Northern Adriatic ports and the land infrastructure to successfully take over this task, at least to a certain extent, and finally, in a reasonable future.
... The shipping traffic in the Arctic region so far can be divided into 'destinational' and 'trans-Arctic' shipping. The former is expected to increase primarily because of hydrocarbon extraction activities, re-supply to remote Arctic communities, fishing, research voyages, and tourism (Melia, Haines, and Hawkins 2017). For trans-Arctic shipping, it is currently mainly performed along two main routes: Northern Sea Route (NSR) along Russia's northern coastlines, and Northwest Passage (NWP) through the Canadian Archipelago. ...
The growth of Arctic shipping requires effective tools to assess the appropriateness of existing practices on safety and resilience levels, especially in the enforcement of the Polar Code. Understanding such, in this study, we develop a resilience index using the Fuzzy Analytical Hierarchy Process (FAHP). Data collection for the index’s implementation started during a research voyage along the Northwest Passage in Canada. It resulted in 61 valid responses, upon which the relative importance and the level of satisfaction of resilience builders were investigated. The findings indicate that factors that rank high on importance are, in many cases, not that high on satisfaction. This presents dilemmas regarding the effectiveness of the current practices in promoting safe and resilient Arctic shipping management practices. This study fills an important gap in the monitoring of safety and resilience practices in Arctic shipping. In turn, this affects the future actions and research of researchers, stakeholders, and right-holders in the Arctic area.
... Many studies focus on the climatic problems associated with the development of Arctic deposits, e.g., the article by C.M. Ricksey, Oil and Sustainability in the Arctic Circle, which analyzes the problem of Arctic ecosystems under the threat of pollution by oil and gas companies and the related infrastructure [14]. In addition, the long-term demand for fossil fuels, taking into account the Paris Agreement and international objectives of climate protection, casts doubt on the feasibility of using the Arctic fuel resources [15,16]. A considerble amount of research is devoted to the ultimate geopolitical significance of the Arctic Region, since it covers the northern part of the mainland of Eurasia, North America, almost the entire Arctic Ocean, with its islands, and the adjacent parts of the Atlantic and Pacific Ocean, with a total area of 21 million square kilometers [17]. ...
The relevance of the article is due to the fact that as the ice melts, the Arctic Ocean is becoming increasingly available. This fact has renewed the interest in Arctic mineral resources. The purpose of this article is to study special aspects of the development of Arctic hydrocarbon resources, which can boost the economic growth of the Russian economy in the medium term, and to identify approaches to enhance the economic value of these processes. The purpose was achieved by the solution of the following objectives: analysis of the current state of the Arctic resources, as well as the situation on both the global and Russian markets for hydrocarbon resources; study of the special part played by Arctic marine hydrocarbons; and substantiation of the development of transport infrastructure as an important factor in enhancing the economic efficiency of the production of offshore hydrocarbon resources in the Arctic Regions. The methodological framework of the article is formed by the fundamental provisions of economic theory, national economy, economic, environmental and energy security, as well as discoveries and developments by foreign and domestic scientists to ensure the economic efficiency of offshore hydrocarbon production in the Arctic Regions. The author’s sequence of stages for calculating the technical and economic potential of offshore oil and gas fields in the Arctic is proposed, which, unlike the existing ones, is based on an integral indicator combining financial, technical, climatic and service-infrastructure characteristics of fields, which makes it possible to make a rating of fields to determine the order and priority of the beginning of their development. The necessity of taking into account a wide list of factors in the comparative analysis of oil and gas fields in the Arctic in order to make strategic management decisions on the priority of field development is proved. The article suggests that the organizational structure and legal support be differentiated by management levels (mega-level, macro-level, meso-level, and micro-level), as it pertains to the extraction of marine hydrocarbon resources in the Arctic Regions and the development of the transport infrastructure of the Northern Sea Route.
... Despite the increased intensity of cooperation and the entry of Chinese investors into a number of resource and infrastructure projects in the Russian Arctic, the prospects for China's involvement in the territorial development of the Arctic Zone of Russia (Blunden, 2012;Moe & Oystein, 2010;Melia et al., 2017), they mainly focus on institutional policy and governance in the Arctic, rather than on the regional aspects of development and allocation of productive forces. Participation of Chinese companies in the development of resources in the Arctic and their export to China (Bertelsen & Gallucci, 2016;Fairhall, 2011;Flake, 2013) explore marine navigation, rail, or pipeline transportation issues. ...
The theme of 2021, Defining and Mapping the Arctic: Sovereignties, Policies and Perceptions contains relevant topics that are much discussed, examined, reported and speculated in policy circles, academia, and the media. Perhaps because it is distant from major political, business and media centres, the Arctic seems especially prone to external interpretations of its essential character. How the Arctic is defined and perceived, or redefined, as well as how non-Arctic actors remap their geographical position and (re)identify their relationship with the Arctic region has real implications for how it is governed, as the 2020 IIASA analysis on Arctic policies reveals. Yet dominant narratives about the region are often based on superficial, ideological or arbitrary understandings. There is a need for better-informed discussions about the essential nature of the Arctic, and its people, its economy, its geography and its environment, as well as the examination of dominant perceptions.
This 10th edition of the Arctic Yearbook has provided such a space for this endeavour. This volume contains 33 scholarly articles that explore, analyze, critique, and further discuss how the globalized Arctic is (re)defined and (re)mapped. The diverse collection of articles in this volume engage with a variety of unique but also overlapping topics that include 'traditional' Arctic security and sovereignty issues; geographical factors that are influencing regional geopolitics; Russian development interests and activities; economic considerations related to Arctic geography; and the diverse roles of identity, art, and culture in articulating alternative notions of sovereignty in the region.
... Either China's participation is not considered when analyzing territorial development issues in the Arctic, or it is limited to reviewing the participation of Chinese companies in focal industrial projects in Russia and northern Europe and navigation along the NSR. Although most researchers agree that cooperation with China and other non-Arctic countries is inseparable from the social and economic development of circumpolar territories (Blunden, 2012;Heininen, 2014;Moe & Oystein, 2010;Melia et al., 2017), they mainly focus on institutional policy and governance in the Arctic, rather than on the regional aspects of development and allocation of productive forces. Participation of Chinese companies in the development of resources in the Arctic and their export to China (Bertelsen & Gallucci, 2016;Fairhall, 2011;Flake, 2013) explore marine navigation, rail, or pipeline transportation issues. ...
In recent years, a growing number of investment projects in the Arctic zone of Russia have been contributed to by China's capital and technologies, but the industrial development of the Russian Arctic remains extremely fragmented. The focal location of productive forces and population hampers integration of the northern territories into global supply chains, limits international investment cooperation to few mineral resources basins, and thus poses a threat to the resilient development of the entire region. Russia's government has been paying increasing attention to mitigating social and economic imbalances in the Arctic. The new Strategy for the Development of the Arctic Zone of the Russian Federation and Provision of National Security through 2035 (approved in November 2020) for the first time focuses on the development priorities of individual regions and includes per-territory summaries of investment, infrastructure, and social projects. The Arctic Zone of Russia is expanding by the inclusion of new administrative entities. In 2020, Russia announced preferences for investors which have turned the Russian Arctic into the world's largest free economic zone of almost five million square kilometers. Such changes cannot but affect business link s with foreign counterparts. In this study, the authors explore new possibilities of Russia-China economic and investment cooperation in the High North. The analysis includes Russia's national Arctic strategy and regional strategies of the nine administrative territories that constitute the Arctic Zone of Russia. The study concludes with the per-territory identification of the most promising investment and infrastructure projects for China to take part in.
... Opening of these new shipping lanes is also opening access to new places in the region that were earlier inaccessible. The Arctic states under the perceived notion of sovereignty threats to these new emerging regions and routes, are trying hard to dominate these for their own economic and strategic gains (Melia et al., 2017). The discourses of fear and threat of foreign adversary or immediate neighbour are being used by some states to justify their own acts of increased military build-ups and domination in these regions. ...
The rapidly transforming Arctic has led to rethink the concept of security in the region. The increasing global warming and opening up of the Arctic have brought multiple geopolitical issues before the Arctic and non-Arctic states. ¹ In pursuit of their perceived geopolitical, geo-economics and strategic interests, a race to ‘securitise the Arctic’ has started amongst the major Arctic states. This process of securitisation appears to be dictated and driven not only by traditional military-strategic considerations but also by non-traditional security threat dilemmas related to energy, environment, sustainability, human security, connectivity, etc. As the old and the new Arctic challenges are being taken out of the realm of ‘normal politics’ and placed in the contested domain of ‘security politics’, the Asian states, that are directly or indirectly impacted by the changing Arctic, realise that securitisation of the Arctic is leaving little space for addressing common issues of global concern. This study argues that all these emerging issues (otherwise perceived as ‘security threats’) in the Arctic, instead of being addressed in the securitisation framework, could and should be approached and addressed as compelling reasons for mutual cooperation and thus in need of de-securitisation.
