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XRD patterns of raw materials; Sp spodumene, I Illite, K Kaolinite, Q Quartz, Ab Albite, Mc Microcline
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Raw materials and energy are among the most important costs in ceramic sanitaryware production. With the decrease in raw material sources and increasing costs of energy in recent years, researches on alternative raw materials and energy have started to gain importance. In this study, blast furnace slag and spodumene were used to reduce both energy...
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The industrial waste has been rapidly increased day by day because of the fast-expanding population which dumps the waste in an inappropriate way resulting in environmental pollutions. It has been recommended that; the disposal of industrial waste would be greatly reduced if it could be incorporated in concrete production. Among these waste, one op...
Cemented paste backfilling is a novel tailings management method that is widely used in the mining industry to minimize the environmental and geotechnical risks associated with traditional mine waste management techniques, ensure safe work conditions in underground mines, and increase mine productivity. To enhance the early age strength of cement p...
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... Recycling of waste in previous studies contributes to the decrease in natural raw material supply, reduction of production costs, and conscious consumption of natural resources due to the use of waste as an alternative raw material [12][13][14][15][16][17]. ...
Ceramic tiles reach their final microstructures and acquire their technical properties by firing process after shaping, glazing, and drying processes. The firing process is carried out continuously in roller kilns. In roller kilns, tiles pass through firing zones at different firing temperatures such as preheating, firing, and cooling zones in which different types of rollers are used. deformations such as breakage and deterioration of roller smoothness occur in the kiln roller over time due to high temperature and tile mass. For these reasons, unused kiln rollers are separated into waste and replaced with new ones. In the present study, the purpose was to transform the kiln roller into a value-added product. For this purpose, the use of kiln roller wastes in glazed porcelain tile matte-opaque glaze was investigated. Ground kiln roller waste was used instead of alumina, quartz, and zircon in a standard matte-opaque glaze composition. The developed glazes were sintered at 1190 °C for 44 min. The thermal, optical, and physical properties of the glazes were examined and compared with the standard glaze recipe. The melting behaviors of the glazes were measured with a heating microscope, and the thermal expansion coefficients were measured with a dilatometer. The phases developed in the structure were determined by XRD analysis and scanning electron microscope (SEM). According to the results, the usage of roller waste instead of alumina and quartz decreased the crystal phase development in the glaze and the opacity, causing an increase in surface glossiness. When it was used instead of zircon, anorthite and crystal phase development increased and the surface brightness decreased, but the opacity decreased significantly due to the decline of zircon crystals. Considering all these thermal and optical properties, it was determined that the use of roller waste would be possible with some optimizations in the composition of matte-opaque glaze composition.
... When the studies on sanitaryware production are examined in the literature, considering the problems experienced in the sector due to raw material supply, it is important to make seger calculations of different regional raw materials, to add them to the recipe or to reduce the ratio of high-cost raw materials in the recipe and to substitute alternative raw materials [4,5]. In addition, the precursor materials used in the glaze composition affect sintering temperature, microstructure, crystal development, energy costs, gas emissions and ultimately the effects on the final product properties [6,7]. However, the problems encountered in daily production in the factories currently working in the sector are solved by the R&D units, but these data remain individually within the industry. ...
When the export values of ceramic sanitary ware in Turkey are analyzed, it is seen that the data for the year 2022 of ~660 million dollars continues to increase. In the sector, which reaches an annual average increase of 100 million dollars, the amount of production as well as the design demands change and shape the market. The most important difficulty factors in design are due to the fact that the products in the sector have large sizes, complex shapes and the most human-made production stages. When these factors are compared with other ceramic sectors, it is revealed that although industrialization has increased in the production of ceramic sanitary ware, the lack of production amount and the excess of faults are among the biggest problems. Glaze faults are the leading faults observed in the final product, and since this problem is not recyclable, it harms the ceramic sanitary ware industry in terms of cost. In this study, the glaze faults reflected in the final glazed products originating from the foundry stage, which attracts attention in this field due to its large size and whiteness and there is not much data for the vitreous ware industry in the literature, have been studied. In the study, which was carried out with the aim of detecting and eliminating some faults in industrial production and creating data for the literature, faults arising from mechanical evenings used in classical and pressure casting benches and material residues used in retouching processes were determined. These faults were produced on the basis of the laboratory and the characterization of the glazed faulty products was made. The results show that production losses can be reduced by eliminating these problems. Losses by identifying and analyzing these faults. They are used for the first time.
... Especially, these needle-like mullite crystals enhanced the mechanical properties of the bodies. These images indicates that the interlocking of mullite needles is responsible for the porcelain strength according to mullite hypothesis [19][20][21][22]. Also, according to this hypothesis, the strength increases with the increase in the mullite content. ...
Ceramic sanitaryware products are produced using inorganic and non-metallic raw materials such as clay, kaolin, quartz and feldspar at certain rates. After mixing and grounding process, the slip is obtained. The products are shaped in gypsum or synthetic resin moulds. Green bodies are fired at 1250 °C for 16–18 h, and their water absorption values are less than 0.5%. Nowadays the most important issues are raw materials and energy costs. In this study, the sintering behaviour of Na-feldspar and K-feldspar, which are widely used in ceramic sanitaryware, is analysed by reducing to different grain sizes. The grain sizes of the samples containing Na-feldspar were reduced under 63 µm. It was found that the decrease in grain size of Na-feldspar contributed to the decrease in sintering temperature. Potassium feldspar was also added instead of Na-feldspar in order to develop deformation behaviour at higher temperature. The increase in the amount of K-feldspar contributed to the decrease in deformation values. However, the flexural strength of the bodies decreased. A decrease in grain size of Na-feldspar resulted in a reduction of 10 °C at the sintering temperature. The decrease in sintering temperature will provide a cost advantage of around 3%. It was also found that technical properties such as firing shrinkage, bulk density, and flexure strength increased as the grain size of Na-feldspar decreased.
... When the studies on sanitaryware production are examined in the literature, considering the problems experienced in the sector due to raw material supply, it is important to make seger calculations of different regional raw materials, to add them to the recipe or to reduce the ratio of high-cost raw materials in the recipe and to substitute alternative raw materials [4,5]. In addition, the precursor materials used in the glaze composition affect sintering temperature, microstructure, crystal development, energy costs, gas emissions and ultimately the effects on the final product properties [6,7]. However, the problems encountered in daily production in the factories currently working in the sector are solved by the R&D units, but these data remain individually within the industry. ...
The use of right glaze compositions, which enable ceramic sanitary ware (such as sink, toilet bowl, toilet bowl, etc.) to have better hygienic, aesthetic and technical properties, is of great importance as in other ceramic products. Glaze compositions, which provide durability to sanitary ware materials, reduce impact resistance and give ceramic material a hygienic appearance, are produced as ~97% white color depending on the preferences of the consumers, therefore, surface defects attract more attention in glazing and post-glazing process applications. When faults occurred during the different stages of manufacture detected on the final product, failure to detect faults on the final product by passing many production stages poses a problem in terms of intervention in the process. Faults that occur during glaze preparation are important in terms of cost. Since it is a stage in which many economic evaluations have been made in production, eliminating the faults caused from glaze preparation prevents further financial loss. In this study, the appearance of the faults in the sanitaryware items and the change in their regions (occured as a result of the oils contaminations from the machinery and components used in the preparation of glaze, the pipes of the tanks used in the glaze transport tanks and the glaze transfer or the impurities contaminated from the environment, the splashing of the impurities by the colored glazes in the glazing cabinets etc.) were characterized by means of SEM (Scanning Electron Microscopy), XRF (X-ray fluorescence spectrometry), XRD (X-Ray Diffractometry) and color measurement (L a* b*) analyzes. According to the data derived from the final defected products, the faulty products were imitated by using the same components and methods on the plates under the laboratory conditions. Finally, the solutions for the problems were determined on the basis of faulty products obtained in the laboratory.
... The use of waste as a raw material or cementitious additive can be applied in manufacturing compound types of cement, concrete, bricks, and aggregates, among others [9]. Waste from various activities can be used in construction, such as agro-industrial wastes [10][11][12][13][14][15][16][17][18], industrial waste [19][20][21][22][23], coal combustion waste [24][25][26], ceramic waste [26][27][28][29], cement raw mix waste [30][31][32], construction waste [33][34][35], and mining waste [9,36]. ...
One of the main concerns of the mining industry is the large amount of waste generated in mineral extraction and processing. Besides causing environmental impacts, these environmental liabilities occupy extensive areas and can lead to problems in their disposal. The use of such waste in civil construction has shown promise through several research. This paper proposes the incorporation of waste rock (WR) from a phosphate mine in the production of cement tiles as a partial replacement for Portland cement. Physical and chemical tests characterized the WR. The cement tiles were developed with the replacement of cement by WR with a content of 25% at temperatures of 400 °C and 600 °C. Hydraulic tiles were developed by replacing cement with WR at a content of 25%. The pieces were produced with WR without heat treatment and treated at temperatures of 400 °C and 600 °C. The tiles were evaluated according to some parameters, such as visual and dimensional analysis, water absorption, acid attack, and strength. As a result, all tiles presented strength above 3.5 MPa, within limits required by the standard. The tiles calcined at 600 °C showed the best pigmentation. The heat treatment did not influence the strength, although it helped in the pigmentation process. Therefore, it was possible to obtain cement tiles pigmented using mine waste with reduced Portland cement consumption, adequate strength, and aesthetically suitable.
... Fuel or organic wastes contribute to savings in firing energy, while fluxing or inorganic wastes improve the ceramic properties [12,14,15]. Specifically, inorganic wastes containing metals and minerals can melt and react with the clay minerals [16][17][18]. Despite these advantages, these trials have not yet been scaled up to mass production in industrial facilities. ...
Circular economy promotes the use of waste materials into new production processes as a key factor for resource efficiency. The construction sector, and specifically the fired clay industry, is able to assimilate large amounts of waste in their processes, without significantly altering the technical properties of products. The introduction of different waste in ceramic products at the laboratory level has been extensively studied in the literature, but most of these studies have not yet been scaled-up to industrial production. Differences in processing with respect to laboratory conditions introduces uncertainty in relation to the expected properties of the final products. This paper uses a Self-Organizing Map (SOM)-based methodology for analysing and assessing the incorporation of industrial waste, Waelz slag (WS) and foundry sand dust (FSD), in ceramic products obtained sequentially at laboratory, semi-industrial and industrial level, over technological properties and metals release. As a result, from the SOM analysis, a clustered map of the samples developed is obtained that highlights the most important parameters affecting the technological and environmental properties to be the type of clay and therefore, the firing temperature; secondly, the Waelz slag content, being independent of the foundry sand addition; and finally, the type and level of processing (laboratory-pressing, semi-industrial extruder, industrial extruder).
... A clay-based ceramic is regarded as 'sustainable' if it is made from waste materials (including by-products), environmentally friendly (non-hazardous and recyclable), energy-efficient and cost-effective [1][2][3][4][5][6][7]. Various worldwide researchers have proposed on the potential recycling of waste materials, such as blast furnace slag from the iron making process [8][9][10][11][12][13][14], waste glass [15][16][17][18][19][20][21][22][23][24][25][26][27], fly ash [28][29][30][31][32][33][34][35], sewage sludge [36][37][38][39][40][41][42][43][44][45][46][47][48][49] and electric arc furnace (EAF) steel slag from carbon steel making plant [4,[50][51][52] as one of the raw materials for clay-based ceramic products such as brick, ceramic floor and wall tile as well as roofing tile. The idea of utilizing the waste materials for the ceramic body is progressively proposed due to they have proximate chemical composition to the natural resources (clay, flux and filler) used for conventional clay-based ceramics. ...
This study aims to optimize the composition (body formulation) and firing temperature of sustainable ceramic clay-based ceramics incorporated with electric arc furnace (EAF) steel slag waste using general full factorial design (GFFD). The optimization is necessary to minimize drawbacks of high iron oxide’s fluxing agent (originated from electric arc furnace, EAF steel slag waste), which led to severe surface defects and high closed porosity issue of the ceramics. Statistical analysis of GFFD including model adequacy checking, analysis of variance (ANOVA), interaction plots, regression model, contour plot and response optimizer were conducted in the study. The responses (final properties of ceramics) investigated were firing shrinkage, water absorption, apparent porosity, bulk density and modulus of rupture (MOR). Meanwhile, the factors employed in experimental parameters were weight percentage (wt.%) of EAF slag added and firing temperature. Upon statistical analysis, GFFD has deduced that wt.% amount of EAF slag added and firing temperatures are proven to significantly influence the final properties of the clay-based ceramic incorporated with EAF slag. The results of conducted statistical analysis were also highly significant and proven valid for the ceramics. Optimized properties (maximum MOR, minimum water absorption and apparent porosity) of the ceramic were attained at 50 wt.% of EAF slag added and firing temperature of 1180 °C.
The possibility of obtaining gray, pink, light brown, crimson, olive green pigments based on blast-furnace slag is substantiated. Blast-furnace slag was studied using X-ray analysis, energy-dispersive X-ray microanalysis, and digital electronic microscope. The high efficiency of the low-temperature process for obtaining pigments is shown. It has been established that a high degree of conversion is provided by chemical interaction. The technological properties of the pigment are determined. To determine the optimal synthesis conditions, the influence of several variables, such as temperature, contact time, and adsorbent mass, was studied. Quadratic models were also obtained. Statistical processing was carried out. The central composite rotatable experimental design was used to determine the optimal conditions for obtaining pigments using different chromophore cations (chromium, iron, zinc, nickel). The experimental plan was carried out at two levels of three operating parameters, which were the mass of slag, the time of synthesis, and temperature. Four quadratic mathematical models have been obtained that describe the dependence of the degree of transformation on parameters. The models are adequate. The maximum conversions for chromium, iron, zinc, and nickel are 96.3%, 94.11% 33.7%, and 99.91%, respectively.Graphical Abstract
