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![Work flow of blockchain architecture Blockchain technology provides several platforms such as ethereum, hyperlredger, bitcoin, multichain and so on. Hyperledger, ethereum are most widely used because of open source and it supports for different use cases. The fig 1 shows the blockchain architecture working process in the form of a digital wallet. A block in blockchain mainly consists of data, the hash value of block and also the hash value of previous block. Data stored in each block depends on the type of blockchain technology. For example in Bitcoin, the block stores data about the sender, amount of coins and the receiver information [1, 2]. The hash key is generated using hashing algorithms (SHA 256) this hash key helps in easily identifying each block in the blockchain structure. Once a block is created a hash key is assigned to it, any changes done for block will intern effect the hash value. The final and important component within the block is the hash value of previous block, using this value we build a chain of blocks and it will be the main element for blockchain architecture security. If any block gets corrupted and attempts to provoke the blocks to change then all the other blocks which are connected to a chain will carry incorrect information and whole blockchain system will be invalid. It is also possible to adjust all the blocks using proof-of-work protocol. This will allow user to slow down the new block creation process .In bitcoin it approximately takes 10 min to find the required proof-of-work and to add new block to the chain this task is performed by miners. Miners need to store the transaction fees information received from the block which they have verified as reward. A new user node joining the peer to peer network will get the full information of the system. If any new block is created that it is being sent to all the nodes in the blockchain system, each node verify and validates the information. If the information is correct then the block is added to the local blockchain in each node. All nodes which are within the blockchain architecture creates a consensus protocol which holds the set of rules information , if all the nodes agree to this then all the blocks will be secured[4].](publication/340700069/figure/fig1/AS:881305894023172@1587131107397/Work-flow-of-blockchain-architecture-Blockchain-technology-provides-several-platforms.jpg)
Work flow of blockchain architecture Blockchain technology provides several platforms such as ethereum, hyperlredger, bitcoin, multichain and so on. Hyperledger, ethereum are most widely used because of open source and it supports for different use cases. The fig 1 shows the blockchain architecture working process in the form of a digital wallet. A block in blockchain mainly consists of data, the hash value of block and also the hash value of previous block. Data stored in each block depends on the type of blockchain technology. For example in Bitcoin, the block stores data about the sender, amount of coins and the receiver information [1, 2]. The hash key is generated using hashing algorithms (SHA 256) this hash key helps in easily identifying each block in the blockchain structure. Once a block is created a hash key is assigned to it, any changes done for block will intern effect the hash value. The final and important component within the block is the hash value of previous block, using this value we build a chain of blocks and it will be the main element for blockchain architecture security. If any block gets corrupted and attempts to provoke the blocks to change then all the other blocks which are connected to a chain will carry incorrect information and whole blockchain system will be invalid. It is also possible to adjust all the blocks using proof-of-work protocol. This will allow user to slow down the new block creation process .In bitcoin it approximately takes 10 min to find the required proof-of-work and to add new block to the chain this task is performed by miners. Miners need to store the transaction fees information received from the block which they have verified as reward. A new user node joining the peer to peer network will get the full information of the system. If any new block is created that it is being sent to all the nodes in the blockchain system, each node verify and validates the information. If the information is correct then the block is added to the local blockchain in each node. All nodes which are within the blockchain architecture creates a consensus protocol which holds the set of rules information , if all the nodes agree to this then all the blocks will be secured[4].
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Blockchain technology is evolving and revolutionizing the IT industry with better security, efficiency, and resilience. Blockchain technology is being used in many applications majorly in cryptocurrencies and bitcoin applications. Verified transactions which make a block and group of such transactions or blocks are immutable making the blockchain m...
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p>The increasing of digital technology today has helped many people to fulfill their needs. But the election system, still conventionally using paper in its implementation. Elections in general still use a centralized system, where there is an organization that manages it. Some of the problems that may occur in traditional electoral systems are tha...
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... This mechanism that achieves a common agreement among all peers is called consensus. According to the agreement made by all peers, blockchain technology uses various consensus protocols such as Proof of Work (PoW), Proof of Stake (PoS), Raft, and Practical Byzantine Fault Tolerance (PBFT) to confirm the validity of a block of transactions [25,26,27,28,29,30,31,32,33]. ...
Electronic voting (e-voting) is an electronic concept for casting and counting ballots.This process is a practical and efficient method of voting and is capableof safely handling large data in real-time. However, there is a growing concernregarding network security and connection privacy in the e-voting process. Creatingan e-voting system that can simultaneously guarantee anonymity, verifiability,and transparency is a challenging and complicated task. Recently, considerableefforts have been made to design blockchain-based e-voting systems. Blockchainallows designing a new generation of software capable of storing data in a safeand transparent manner. The primary challenge of blockchain-based e-votingsystems is maintaining the anonymity of users. It is also a challenging issue tosimultaneously create coercion-resistance, end-to-end verifiability and soundnessproperties in an e-voting system. Simorgh [1] is a safe communication systembased on blockchain. Simorgh uses smart contracts and mediator authenticationnodes (a decentralized concept) to create a safe connection between the senderand the receiver. Here, we introduce Hafez∗e-voting system, which is based onthe communication structure of Simorgh and designed according to the capabilitiesof blockchain technology. Hafez has all the features required for an e-votingsystem and can play the role of a suitable alternative to traditional e-voting.
... Ethereum is popular because it implements distributed data storage, allowing users to run their own applications and blockchain [52]. It can also store data with an unlimited block size [53]. The remaining 4 studies suggested implementing Hyperledger for this purpose. ...
... The inherent advantage of an ensemble ML model lies in its ability to efficiently leverage distributed data spanning various domains without necessitating a centralized data server [7]. This decentralized framework not only ensures effective utilization of data scattered across multiple domains but also demonstrates promising system efficiency compared to alternative methodologies [8]. By harnessing the power of ensemble machine learning within blockchain networks, this approach offers a robust and efficient means of processing diverse and geographically dispersed datasets without the constraints of centralized data storage. ...
Blockchain technology has emerged as a reliable and secure decentralized network with multifaceted applications in banking, finance, insurance, healthcare, and business domains. Recent trends within blockchain communities indicate a growing interest in deploying machine learning models to extract valuable insights from extensive, geographically dispersed datasets owned by individual participants. To enable learning models without centralized data repositories, extensive research has focused on developing machine learning algorithms tailored for blockchain networks. However, despite numerous proposals, privacy and security concerns remain inadequately addressed, revealing vulnerabilities in architecture and operational efficiency limitations. The proposed ensemble machine learning model presents a pioneering solution, aiming to systematically resolve privacy, security, and performance issues within blockchain systems. The novelty of this approach lies in its targeted resolution of critical challenges at the intersection of blockchain technology and machine learning. While prior research has delved into integrating machine learning into blockchain networks, this model stands out by introducing a privacy-centric methodology that systematically addresses the core issues of privacy, security, and performance. Moreover, the proposed model promises enhanced resilience against adversarial attacks compared to other aggregation rules within a differentially private scenario. The innovative ensemble machine learning model for blockchain exhibits a significant 20% improvement in data privacy, a 15% boost in security, and a notable 25% enhancement in operational performance.
... Scalability solutions are still in the testing and implementation phase and it remains to be seen which approach will be the most effective in the long term. Additionally, scalability solutions often involve trade-offs and balance between decentralization and security [20,28,41,47,61,93,94], which also needs to be considered. Existing solutions have been discussed more in detail, in the later sections. ...
... Scalability problems can be addressed through on-chain solutions by focusing on the block's internal components or off-chain solutions where the transactions can be processed outside the primary block (off-chain). These techniques, include Consensus Related Methods, Directed Acylic Graph (DAG) related methods, and some other potential solutions, like, Plasma, sharding, etc., proposed in the literature [59][60][61][62][63][64][65]93], are briefly explained below. ...
This comprehensive review paper examines the challenges faced by blockchain technology in terms of scalability and proposes potential solutions and future research directions. Scalability poses a significant hurdle for Bitcoin and Ethereum, manifesting as low throughput, extended transaction delays, and excessive energy consumption, thereby compromising efficiency. The current state of blockchain scalability is analyzed, encompassing the limitations of existing solutions such as Sharding and off-chain scaling. Various proposed remedies, including layer 2 scaling solutions, consensus mechanisms, and alternative approaches, are investigated. The paper also explores the impact of scalability on diverse blockchain applications and identifies potential future research directions by integrating data science techniques with blockchain technology. Notably, nearly 110 primary research papers from reputable scientific databases like Scopus, IEEE Explore, Science Direct, and Web of Science were reviewed, demonstrating scalability in blockchain comprising several elements. Transaction throughput and network latency emerge as the most prominent concerns. Consequently, this review offers future research avenues to address scalability challenges by leveraging data science techniques like distributed computing and parallel processing to divide and process vast datasets across multiple machines. The synergy between data science and blockchain holds promise as an optimal solution. Overall, this up-to-date understanding of blockchain scalability is invaluable to researchers, practitioners, and policy makers engaged in this domain.
... Additionally, the study in [22] conducted research on transaction speeds using the Geth and Parity clients. Both Geth and Parity support by PoA, with Geth focusing on Clique and Parity on AuRa_ori. ...
... This cryptographic protection adds an additional layer of security, rendering the forensic evidence tamper-proof and verifiable [13]. Blockchain technology finds applications across diverse industries and scenarios, spanning finance, supply chain management [15], voting [2], natural language processing, social media [16], content security, voice-based recognition systems [8], and identity verification [9]. Its distinctive blend of security, transparency, and decentralization renders it an appealing solution across various sectors. ...
Blockchain technology is a groundbreaking and highly secure decentralized digital ledger used to record and store transactions across a network of computers. Its primary purpose is to safeguard, monitor, and oversee digital assets, providing robust protection against unauthorized tampering, revisions, or deletions. It serves as an immutable and tamper-resistant ledger ideal for storing digital evidence, enabling the tracking of evidence’s origins while strictly controlling access to authorized individuals. Current evidence management systems lack essential functionalities, such as authenticating intermediate user access and efficiently transferring evidence access between users. These systems also rely on the Base64 algorithm, which presents challenges related to storage capacity, time delays, scalability, and transaction throughput. To address these limitations, this research introduces an innovative solution: The integration of the Base64 scheme with sharding and the Interplanetary File System (IPFS). This integration is designed to bolster transaction performance, scalability, and throughput. The Base64 scheme plays a pivotal role by encrypting image evidence, securely housing it within the blockchain network. Concurrently, IPFS decentralizes the storage of these images, thereby optimizing memory usage and enhancing transaction throughput within the blockchain environment. Experimental results showcase the efficacy of the proposed SHARD-FEMF, demonstrating a 25% improvement in memory utilization, a 21.5% reduction in gas utilization, and a 23% enhancement in transaction scalability compared to the existing Base64 scheme. Through the combined utilization of sharding and IPFS, the SHARD-FEMF framework represents a significant advancement in efficient forensic evidence management leveraging blockchain technology
... In blockchain, information is shared among the contributory nodes described as peers. Each transaction is confirmed by a consensus mechanism, a technique that is supported by the majority of the peer nodes [5][6][7][8][9]. However, the distributed architecture expresses some restrictions imposed by the peer nodes, and any changes committed by a single node must be conveyed to all other nodes in the blockchain network on an urgent basis. ...
... After successful validation, if the majority of the nodes agree to add the block, then only the respective block is added to the blockchain. Hence, the peer nodes acquire the entire liability to make any decision regarding the alteration or modification of the blockchain rather than using any third-party centralized system [9]. Depending upon the maintenance and working functionality of the blockchain, the consensus mechanism is divided into-(i) competitive and (ii) non-competitive consensus. ...
... However, a competitive consensus system faces double voting or double payment problems for the same block. It also incurs uncertainty and performance issues [9]. On the other hand, the non-competitive consensus peer agreement and policy are changed based on time but it works in a trusted environment. ...
Traditional voting systems mainly comprise of paper polling, electronic ballot system (EVM), mechanical devices, etc., and demand the physical presence of the voters. In the new age of digitization, the electronic voting system has come up with a unique facility to cast votes from any discreet place. However, the e-voting system has to face several challenges regarding security and privacy. To overcome such obstructions, blockchain is introduced in e-voting applications that preserve anonymity, security, and consistency of voter-related information with the help of Merkle tree and hash digest. Hence, any discrepancy can immediately be detected whenever the hash values of the respective block have been modified and consequently, the whole block is discarded. In this research, a novel e-voting scheme is proposed following the decentralized service-oriented architecture of Exonum private blockchain, hybrid consensus algorithm, and Elliptic Curve Diffie-Helmen (ECDH) protocol to agree upon a secure session key among different participants. Moreover, the proposed scheme (ECC-EXONUM-eVOTING) employs a zero-knowledge protocol and is customized to work over idemix technologies with a blind signature scheme. Numerous well-known cryptographic attacks are analyzed formally using the probabilistic random oracle model and informally for validating the security strength of ECC-EXONUM-eVOTING. As a result, it is found that the proposed scheme is well-defended against all potential security concerns. Furthermore, the scheme is simulated using both Automated Validation of Internet Security Protocols and Applications (AVISPA) and Scyther tools to demonstrate the proposed scheme is not prone to any security attacks. Finally, it is concluded that the proposed scheme is well-suited for secure e-voting applications.
... Blockchain and IoT (BC&IoT): The future should involve integrating blockchain and IoT technologies in e-voting systems to improve voting process security, transparency, and verifiability. The focus of the research is on developing IoT-based applications to ensure easy data exchange between devices and the blockchain network, checking user authentication through biometrics and other secure methods, and examining the integration of blockchain to revolutionize different industries [38,70,165]. ...
The employment of blockchain technology in electronic voting (e-voting) systems is attracting significant attention due to its ability to enhance transparency, security, and integrity in digital voting. This study presents an extensive review of the existing research on e-voting systems that rely on blockchain technology. The study investigates a range of key research concerns, including the benefits, challenges, and impacts of such systems, together with technologies and implementations, and an identification of future directions of research in this domain. We use a hybrid review approach, applying systematic literature review principles to select and categorize scientific papers and reviewing the technology used in these in terms of the above key concerns. In the 252 selected papers, aspects such as security, transparency, and decentralization are frequently emphasized as the main benefits. In contrast, although aspects like privacy, verifiability, efficiency, trustworthiness, and auditability receive significant attention, they are not the primary focus. We observed a relative lack of emphasis on aspects such as accessibility, compatibility, availability, and usability in the reviewed literature. These aspects, although acknowledged, are not as thoroughly discussed as the aforementioned key benefits in the proposed solutions for blockchain-based e-voting systems, whereas the considered studies have proposed well-structured solutions for blockchain-based e-voting systems focusing on how blockchain can strengthen security, transparency, and privacy, in particular, the crucial aspect of scalability needs attention.
... These transactions are grouped into blocks, which are cryptographically linked and added to the blockchain in a linear, chronological order. One of the key features of blockchain technology is its use of cryptographic algorithms for data security [1]. Each transaction on the blockchain is cryptographically signed by the sender, ensuring that it cannot be altered or deleted without their permission. ...
Blockchain technology is a revolutionary, secure, and transparent decentralized digital ledger for recording and storing transactions across multiple computers. It is used to secure, track, and manage digital assets, protecting the data from tampering, revision, and deletion. It provides a secure, immutable, tamper-proof ledger to store digital evidence. Blockchain technology can also track the provenance of digital evidence, ensuring that only authenticated and authorized individuals can access the evidence. Existing evidence management systems lack features like authentic intermediate user access and migrating evidence access from one user to another. The existing system uses the Base32 Algorithm, which lacks storage capability, time delay, scalability, and throughput issues. To overcome these issues, in this paper, we propose a Base64 algorithm integrated with IPFS to enhance transaction performance, scalability, and throughput. The Base64 Algorithm encrypts the image evidence and stores it in the blockchain. The IPFS stores images in a decentralized system to optimize the memory and enhance the throughput of transactions in the blockchain environment. The experimental results show that the proposed Base64 Algorithm optimizes memory utilization by 20% and gas utilization by 19.5% and enhances transaction scalability by 20% compared to the existing Base32 Algorithm.
... Along with C++ and Python, Go Ethereum [6] is one of the three original implementations of the Ethereum protocol. It is entirely open source and developed in Go. ...
When employing authentication mechanisms to store user credentials, a subtle point to note is that they are easily vulnerable to cyber attacks like sharing of user data without their consent, password stealing on a large scale, etc. By decentralizing ownership of credentials and providing a framework for confirming one’s record in an unalterable chain of data, i.e., Distributed Ledger Technology (DLT) in general and blockchain can provide a solution. Blockchain technology can help reduce the risk of attacks and user data leaks through backdoors by establishing a secure platform for online service providers to authenticate users without a single point of failure. Blockchain is being utilized increasingly for trusted, decentralized, secure registration, authentication, and valuation of digital assets (assets, real estate, etc.) and transactions, governing interactions, recording data, and managing identity among numerous parties. Smart contracts are used to do transactions on the blockchain. This work aims to analyze the shortcomings of traditional authentication systems and hence provide a blockchain-based authentication solution to address them. In this paper, we suggest AuthBlock, a robust, lightweight, and secure blockchain-based authentication system. It can be used by multiple parties as an authentication framework in parallel without any interference. The proposed approach leverages the Ethereum blockchain along with its provision of smart contracts. The proposed method is tested on the Ethereum localnet created using Go Ethereum (Geth) and evaluated to analyze user authentication, verification, and cost.KeywordsBlockchainAuthenticationGo EthereumSecuritySmart contracts
