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Women gleaners: Digging for cockles Asaphis violascens (left pane) and probing for octopus at low tide (right pane). Photos by A. Tilley
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A greater understanding of gendered roles in fisheries is necessary to value the often-hidden roles that women play in fisheries and households. We examine women’s contributions to household food and income using focus group discussions, market surveys, and landings data in six communities in Timor-Leste. Women were actively fishing more days per m...
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Context 1
... in gleaning techniques and target species. Gleaning trips would target one species or group of species, using various combinations of gears and techniques (Table 1). Fishing classified as gleaning (meti) implies manual collection but may include carrying a hooked metal bar for prying up or breaking open rocks or pulling organisms from crevices ( Fig. 2), a small basket for trapping (roso), and plant-based toxins for stunning or flushing out reef dwelling ...
Context 2
... creel carried to collect the catch is most often a basket woven from palm fronds (bote) (Fig. 2). Women rely on environmental signals, local knowledge and active communication to select gleaning localities and target species. Thus, keeping track of other gleaners' activities by personal observation or information exchange is fundamental to maximise gleaning catches. While gleaning, women pay particular attention to the disturbance ...
Context 3
... Atauro, women in interviews reported the bivalve A. violascens provided the most income, along with a few small gastropods whose shells were used to make necklaces and sold to Atauro tourists. Gathering of A. violascens requires digging up to 20 cm in gravel substrate near the waterline (see Fig. 2, left panel)). Two hours of A. violascens collection typically yielded between 100 and 150 shells, and a dish containing 20-30 uncooked specimens was sold at USD $1. Assuming an average wet, shelled weight of 6 g, one sale portion would be between 120 and 180 g, indicating a sale price of between $5.50 and $8.30 per kg (Table 2). This is notably ...
Context 4
... was caught using an iron rod to prod and probe reef crevices (Fig. 2) (Table 6). Given the isolation of Adarai on Timor-Leste's south coast (Fig. 1), this is likely to reflect high volumes rather than high market prices. Cumulative income from all activities is more indicative of incomes from a variety of fishing methods (Fig. 5). Mean (± SD) women fisher income per trip across all activities and ...
Context 5
... in gleaning techniques and target species. Gleaning trips would target one species or group of species, using various combinations of gears and techniques (Table 1). Fishing classified as gleaning (meti) implies manual collection but may include carrying a hooked metal bar for prying up or breaking open rocks or pulling organisms from crevices ( Fig. 2), a small basket for trapping (roso), and plant-based toxins for stunning or flushing out reef dwelling ...
Context 6
... creel carried to collect the catch is most often a basket woven from palm fronds (bote) (Fig. 2). Women rely on environmental signals, local knowledge and active communication to select gleaning localities and target species. Thus, keeping track of other gleaners' activities by personal observation or information exchange is fundamental to maximise gleaning catches. While gleaning, women pay particular attention to the disturbance ...
Context 7
... Atauro, women in interviews reported the bivalve A. violascens provided the most income, along with a few small gastropods whose shells were used to make necklaces and sold to Atauro tourists. Gathering of A. violascens requires digging up to 20 cm in gravel substrate near the waterline (see Fig. 2, left panel)). Two hours of A. violascens collection typically yielded between 100 and 150 shells, and a dish containing 20-30 uncooked specimens was sold at USD $1. Assuming an average wet, shelled weight of 6 g, one sale portion would be between 120 and 180 g, indicating a sale price of between $5.50 and $8.30 per kg (Table 2). This is notably ...
Context 8
... was caught using an iron rod to prod and probe reef crevices (Fig. 2) (Table 6). Given the isolation of Adarai on Timor-Leste's south coast (Fig. 1), this is likely to reflect high volumes rather than high market prices. Cumulative income from all activities is more indicative of incomes from a variety of fishing methods (Fig. 5). Mean (± SD) women fisher income per trip across all activities and ...
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Human health and livelihoods are threatened by declining marine fisheries catches, causing substantial interest in the sources and dynamics of fishing. Catch analyses in individual exclusive economic zones (EEZs) and the high seas are abundant, and research across multiple EEZs is growing. However, no previous studies have systematically compared c...
Citations
... Sustainable growth in smallscale fisheries involves more than just economic measures. It entails the well-being and empowerment of all, including often overlooked groups like women (Chambon et al., 2023;FAO, 2016;Tilley et al., 2021). Involving these diverse voices in decision-making processes ensures sustainable development (Cornwall, 2003;Kleiber et al., 2017), while tailored interventions respecting local norms foster ownership, collective action, and cooperation (James et al., 2021;Torre et al., 2019). ...
Biodiversity loss, habitat degradation, globalization, and societal transformations are challenging rural, and especially coastal communities in Guinea-Bissau where mangrove-dependent livelihoods are exposed to increased vulnerability. The Diola, traditional farmer-fishermen of the northern island-villages, have witnessed swift societal changes following the country’s economic liberalization, climate change, and youth migration from rural areas. Despite historically being a secondary subsistence activity with more predefined gender roles rooted in tradition, mangrove fishing has become a major source of cash income. Yet, women’s mangrove fishing contributions are still overlooked, resulting in general assumptions of static female fishing identities with limited control over their income. We present three case studies of Diola women’s involvement in mangrove fishing through a mixed method approach that combines qualitative techniques and household surveys conducted between 2017 and 2023. Specifically, we explore: (1) diverging societal coping strategies and livelihood developments in three Diola villages; (2) the primary drivers behind village-specific societal transformations; (3) social dynamics and female roles in mangrove fishing-related activities and village decision-making; and (4) the political ecology of interventions. Our findings underscore the complexity of gender-fluid small-scale fishing strategies as female roles beyond fish trade defy cultural generalizations. Contemporary Diola women make autonomous personal and work choices that meet their current needs and add to their household budget to face new welfare demands. Inclusive resource governance needs more gender-specific data for meaningfully implemented interventions adapted to local circumstances, enabling an active participation of all genders in conservation practices and development.
... Since women and men tend to fish in different parts of the seascape with gender-differentiated techniques, they catch different species and may possess gender-distinct knowledge of marine resources. Gender and fisheries research scholars have notably shed light on gender-distinct knowledge on marine habitats and fishing grounds (Thomas et al., 2021), animal behavior (Andrade et al., 2016), or fishing techniques (Tilley et al., 2021). These gendered differences in local knowledge support the need for integrating gender considerations in fisheries research to broadening information about coastal social-ecological systems and guiding their management (Alati et al., 2020). ...
Climate change poses severe threats to coastal social-ecological systems (SES) worldwide. Recent calls recognize the importance of including Indigenous and local knowledge (ILK) in research on climate change impacts. Yet studies that have attempted to weave ILK and scientific knowledge have seldom considered the gendered nature of climate change impacts. Building on the literature on gender and climate change and knowledge pluralism, this study contributes to addressing this research gap by exploring local knowledge on climate change impacts and its relation to scientific knowledge through a gendered approach and focusing on the Western Indian Ocean region, and more specifically on Kenya. We adopted a mixed methodology combining qualitative and quantitative approaches. We found evidence of pronounced climate change impacts on coastal SES both in the scientific literature and in local reports. Our findings highlight that there is an extensive overlap between information derived from scientific and local knowledge systems. Importantly, our study revealed reports of change that were only provided by SSF communities, namely changes in coastal dynamics, a decrease in rainfall, and a decrease in the abundance of green algae. Although we found gendered variations in changes reported by SSF communities, gendered differences of climate change impacts on SSF were not detected in the reviewed literature. Overall, our results suggest that knowledge cross-fertilization generates a holistic, relational, and place-based view of climate change impacts, which may support sound and gender-inclusive adaptive policies. We conclude by suggesting key policy recommendations for climate adaptation and risk management
... Small-scale fisheries are Ethnoecology of Indian sand whiting, Sillago sihama (Forsskal, 1775) *Correspondence email: symetar@dbskkv.ac.in Received: 18 Jan 2024 Revised: 22 Mar 2024 Accepted: 25 Mar 2024 Published: 01 May 2024 Original Article often overlooked in national statistics and policies (Harper et al., 2013, Tilley et al., 2020. In India, brackish water fisheries are data deficient and are faced with competition for resources, over-harvesting, pollution, environmental degradation, and rapid development. ...
... weather and oceanographic conditions, navigation (Worsely, 1971), fishing methods (Von Brandt, 1972), vessel design and propulsion, processing, and trade have been effectively used by the fishers to harness the local resources sustainably. Previous studies have analyzed relevant topics related to ethnoecology on the Brazilian and Mexico coast, such as fish reproduction (Silvano and Begossi, 2006), migration (Posey, 1981;Silvano and Begossi, 2005), ecology of endangered reef fish (Gerhardinger et al., 2009) and nature and resource (Teran and Rasmussen, 1994;Faust, 1998;Dunning and Beach, 2004). Some of these surveys addressed both ethnoecology and biological studies of coastal fishes Rainboth, 1996;Begossi and Silvano, 2008;Silvano and Begossi, 2010). ...
Ethnoecology is the cross-cultural study of how people perceive and manipulate their environments. Investigations were carried out to collect and document the local ecological knowledge on Sillago sihama and compare the local knowledge on biology with biological studies and published literature. A total of 100 fishers from Ratnagiri and Sindhudurg districts constituted the sample size of the study. The ethnoecological knowledge on the local name and identification of S. sihama, its habitat and fishery season, size at first maturity, food and feeding, and the spawning season was collected. Similarly, the local knowledge of the effect of the lunar cycle and wind direction on the availability of S. sihama has also been documented. The views of fishers on feeding habits, size at first maturity, and spawning season of S. sihama were compared with biological studies and published literature. Mann-Whitney U-test showed agreement between ethnoecology, biological studies, and published literature.
... Although fishing most taxa had no association with the main demographic divisions within households, fishing some taxa was nonrandom with respect to these divisions. Fishing mollusks has traditionally been gendered in the Indo-Pacific region, with divisions apparent between women and men in relation to the where, how, when, and what social-ecological factors (Malm 2015;Siar 2003;Tilley et al. 2020). While in some areas of the Indo-Pacific these divisions extend to fishing mollusks for shellcraft (e.g., Malm 2009), in other areas this is not the case. ...
... When taxa are sufficiently abundant in intertidal habitats, a disinclination to fish subtidal habitats, which requires full-body immersion, commonly persists (Harding et al. 2022). Elsewhere in the Indo-Pacific region it has been shown that women, the main actors in the studied fishery, prefer fishing intertidal habitats because of the proximity to their residence (Resture and Resture 2005;Furkon et al. 2020;Tilley et al. 2020). Shellcraft in other areas, such as the Solomon Islands (Fidali-Hickie and Whippy-Morris 2005), Timor-Leste (Tilley et al. 2020), and Tuvalu (Resture and Resture 2005), relies on fishing intertidal habitats and some degree of dependence on intertidal habitats can be opined for the studied fishery. ...
... Elsewhere in the Indo-Pacific region it has been shown that women, the main actors in the studied fishery, prefer fishing intertidal habitats because of the proximity to their residence (Resture and Resture 2005;Furkon et al. 2020;Tilley et al. 2020). Shellcraft in other areas, such as the Solomon Islands (Fidali-Hickie and Whippy-Morris 2005), Timor-Leste (Tilley et al. 2020), and Tuvalu (Resture and Resture 2005), relies on fishing intertidal habitats and some degree of dependence on intertidal habitats can be opined for the studied fishery. ...
Shellcraft is a livelihood activity that utilizes shells and skeletal remains of marine taxa for producing ornamental and decorative items. Despite an increasing importance of shellcraft in coastal areas of the Indo-Pacific region, information necessary for stakeholders to identify and respond to change through policy and management decisions is often lacking for fisheries that support this activity. To address this knowledge gap, a quantitative approach was taken to evaluate social-ecological factors (the what, where, how much, who, when, how, how often, and how long) in a “shellcraft fishery” centered at the Nusa Islands of Papua New Guinea. More than 151,100 individuals across 69 marine taxa were fished annually for shellcraft at the Nusa Islands; fishing was infrequent and quantities fished were low for most taxa when compared with other small-scale fisheries. Fishing most taxa had no association with the main demographic divisions within households although, in terms of participation and catch richness, women were the main actors. Gleaning, combing, and free-diving were the only fishing techniques used, with taxa primarily fished by gleaning intertidal habitats during the day. To contextualize sustainability of this fishery, local ecological knowledge-based perceptions of stock status for the marine taxa fished were examined. Considerations for governance, which included synthesis of existing regulatory measures and aspirations, are also discussed. Since shellcraft occurs throughout the Indo-Pacific region and there are commonalities in taxa utilized, this study provides a basis for comparative analysis of shellcraft fisheries within the region.
... Béné and Merten (2008), posited that women involved in postharvesting activities, contrary to widely held perceptions, enjoyed a narrower but slightly higher profit margin than that made by men fishers at the harvesting stages. What is not clear are the trends and drivers for shifts in gender roles in smallscale artisanal fisheries (SSAF) in Africa (Harper et al., 2017(Harper et al., , 2020Kleiber et al., 2017;Rohe et al., 2018;Tilley et al., 2021). Lake Kariba, is an artificial reservoir constructed with the purpose of generating hydroelectric power for Zambia and Zimbabwe Ndhlovu et al., 2017). ...
... It is important to examine and understand the gendered roles in the SSAF for a number of reasons. Mostly, the roles of women in fisheries are less paid, as they are deemed as part of the household duties of women, increasing their vulnerability to poverty (Tilley et al., 2021). The SSAFs sit within gendered social and cultural systems that perpetuate wellbeing disparities between men and women and introduces vulnerability within processes of ecological and social changes (Gopal et al., 2020;Rohe et al., 2018). ...
Small-scale fisheries support numerous livelihoods in Zimbabwe. However, men are the key actors in the fishing sector relegating women to peripheral roles, often, diminishing women’s contribution to household economy and food security. This study investigated the(i) gendered nature of rod and line angling fisheries, (ii) drivers and barriers for gender roles and participation in rod and line angling fisheries, and (iii) household contribution of rod and line angling fisheries in Lake Kariba. The level of participation in fishing, and postharvest roles such as gutting, gleaning, drying, and smoking significantly differs (p < 0.05) among men and women fishers. The main drivers for engaging in rod and line angling for both men and women were a need for food security, extra income, employment, and mental health benefits. The main barriers discouraging rod and line angling were conflict with hippos, crocodiles, expensive fishing permits, park enforcement of strict fishing zones and proper gear, prohibitive costs of fishing equipment, and decline in market demand for fish. Gender does not significantly (p > 0.05) influence the opinions of the fishers towards the drivers and barriers for engaging in rod angling. Women dominate men in numbers and the roles they play, though they have inadequate decision-making powers and hardly get the recognition they deserve in the rod and line angling value chain in Lake Kariba. Developing a pro-women National Fisheries and Aquaculture Policy in Zimbabwe will uplift and empower women fishers in contributing to household food security and poverty alleviation in small-scale artisanal fisheries.
... Utilizing the tidal cycle, it is often conducted in the early morning or evening at low tide. Each trip may target one, or multiple, types of fauna including fish, moray eel, shrimp, crabs, shellfish, octopus, squids, sea urchins, sea cucumbers, and peanut worms (De Guzman 2019; Tilley et al. 2021). Unlike fishing, that involves complex technology (e.g., watercraft, hooks, spears, lines, traps, and/or nets), and in some places is associated with spiritual beliefs, taboos, and gendered activities, reef gleaning only requires simple sticks, baskets, or just bare-hands (Chapman 1987). ...
... Unlike fishing, that involves complex technology (e.g., watercraft, hooks, spears, lines, traps, and/or nets), and in some places is associated with spiritual beliefs, taboos, and gendered activities, reef gleaning only requires simple sticks, baskets, or just bare-hands (Chapman 1987). Reef gleaning also has a higher success rate for providing food, making it often a more reliable strategy than fishing (Tilley et al. 2021). Sea urchins are still targeted during gleaning trips at low tide on Alor's neighboring islands including Pantar and Timor (Figure 7; Fitriana and Stacey 2012;Tilley et al. 2021). ...
... Reef gleaning also has a higher success rate for providing food, making it often a more reliable strategy than fishing (Tilley et al. 2021). Sea urchins are still targeted during gleaning trips at low tide on Alor's neighboring islands including Pantar and Timor (Figure 7; Fitriana and Stacey 2012;Tilley et al. 2021). Sea urchins are not as regularly suitable for consumption as shellfish or other sessile invertebrates however, as the only edible portion of the animal (their gonads/roe) are inherently linked with the reproductive cycle (Rocha et al. 2019;Smith and Berkes 1991). ...
... Gleaning, i.e. the collection of marine organisms near shore, such as algae, invertebrates, and other fisheries resources (Fig 1.) is a type of SSF that is particularly important for households living in the Indo-Pacific's coastal areas (Crawford et al., 2010;Furkon et al., 2020;Tilley et al., 2021;Weeratunge et al., 2010). Gleaning encompasses a variety of different collection methods, for example: gleaning by hand or using simple gear, such as buckets, sticks, or knives (Andréfouët et al., 2013;del Norte Campos et al., 2005;Villarta et al., 2021). ...
... Gleaners, most of whom typically are women, operate according to different fishing styles: some are selective by targeting only certain species; others are opportunistic and collect any species they can catch (del Norte Campos et al., 2005;Furkon et al., 2020). Gleaning has been documented as a livelihood activity within the Indo-Pacific's fishing villages, in such countries as Indonesia (Furkon et al., 2020), the Philippines (del Norte Campos et al., 2023;Villarta et al., 2021), Madagascar (Andréfouët et al., 2013;Barnes and Rawlinson, 2009), the Solomon Islands (Barclay et al., 2018), Kenya (Alati et al., 2020), Vietnam (Hue Le, 2008), Tanzania (Pike et al., 2024), and East Timor (Grantham et al., 2020;Tilley et al., 2021). In many of these case studies, gleaning in coastal ecosystems served as an important -or even the sole -livelihood activity. ...
... Papers I-II specifically focused upon intertidal gleaning, a type of SSF that requires little equipment and can be done near the place of residence, making it an accessible livelihood activity especially for people that lack the capital that is required for other forms of SSF (Alati et al., 2020;Crawford et al., 2010;de Guzman, 2019;de Guzman et al., 2019;Tilley et al., 2021). Paper II illustrated that while the average income provided from gleaning was well below the Philippine poverty threshold (CPBRD, 2024), it was still substantial. ...
This thesis analyzes the impacts of global environmental change upon the interactions and connections between coastal ecosystems and small-scale fishers. The analysis builds on social and ecological data, obtained in four locations including: Unguja Ukuu, Zanzibar (Paper I); Malalison island, the Philippines (Paper II); Batan, the Philippines (Paper III); and Penang, Malaysia (Paper IV). Each of these locations is currently impacted by processes of global environmental change that challenge the sustainability of local livelihoods based on natural capital. These processes of global environmental change include environmental degradation (Papers I-III), and mangrove degradation due to land use change (Papers III-IV). Papers I-II focus on gleaning as a specific example of a coastal livelihood and found that gleaners over time struggle with local declines of the species they target. In Paper II gleaning was found to be important as a supplemental livelihood activity when local people were unable to perform regular SSF livelihood activities due to disturbances caused by e.g. typhoons. Environmental degradation was also present within the multi gear SSF at Batan (Paper III) within the mangrove estuary. Within the context of both Papers III-IV land use change fragmented the coastal ecosystems which likely impacted the biodiversity and structure of a mangrove forests. In conclusion, this thesis highlights an array of stressors that threaten these social-ecological system of small-scale fishing villages, in particular their coastal ecosystems found at their fringe. This work confirms the importance for local coastal management to understand different components of a SES to strengthen local livelihood security. Future work and management of these coastlines and livelihoods that are based on their environments need both ecological and social data to enable sound management. Alternative livelihoods could be one strategy to reduce dependency of livelihoods on SSF.
... Here, we recognise that gender concerns further dimensions than sexes including the cultural, normative and social attributes of men and women, and their roles and influence in societies [50,51]. The high participation of women in benthic invertebrate fisheries is widely reported [52][53][54][55][56]. Yet, women might not participate in fishery development programs, due to social norms, or have more limited access to markets [21,57]. ...
... Béné and Merten (2008), posited that women involved in postharvesting activities, contrary to widely held perceptions, enjoyed a narrower but slightly higher profit margin than that made by men fishers at the harvesting stages. What is not clear are the trends and drivers for shifts in gender roles in smallscale artisanal fisheries (SSAF) in Africa (Harper et al., 2017(Harper et al., , 2020Kleiber et al., 2017;Rohe et al., 2018;Tilley et al., 2021). Lake Kariba, is an artificial reservoir constructed with the purpose of generating hydroelectric power for Zambia and Zimbabwe Ndhlovu et al., 2017). ...
... It is important to examine and understand the gendered roles in the SSAF for a number of reasons. Mostly, the roles of women in fisheries are less paid, as they are deemed as part of the household duties of women, increasing their vulnerability to poverty (Tilley et al., 2021). The SSAFs sit within gendered social and cultural systems that perpetuate wellbeing disparities between men and women and introduces vulnerability within processes of ecological and social changes (Gopal et al., 2020;Rohe et al., 2018). ...
Small scale fisheries support numerous livelihoods in Zimbabwe. However, men are the key actors in the fishing sector relegating women to peripheral roles, often, diminishing women’s contribution to household economic and food security. This study investigated the: i) gendered nature of rod and line angling fisheries, ii), drivers and barriers for gender roles and participation in rod and line angling fisheries, and iii) household contribution of rod and line angling fisheries in Lake Kariba. The level of participation in fishing, and post harvest roles such as gutting, gleaning, drying and smoking significantly differs (p<0.05) among men and women fishers. The main drivers for engaging in rod and line angling for both men and women were a need for food security, extra income, employment, and mental health benefits. The main barriers discouraging rod and line angling were conflict with hippos, crocodiles, expensive fishing permits, parks enforcement of strict fishing zones and proper gear, prohibitive costs of fishing equipment and decline in market demand for fish. Gender does not significantly (p>0.05) influence the opinions of the fishers towards the drivers and barriers for engaging in rod angling. Women dominate men in numbers and the roles they play though they have inadequate decision making powers and hardly get the recognition they deserve in the rod and line angling value chain in Lake Kariba. Developing a pro-women National Fisheries Policy in Zimbabwe will uplift and empower women fishers in contributing to household food security and poverty alleviation in small scale artisanal fisheries.
... Nutrition-sensitive approaches to sustainable fishery management could help maximise the contribution of wild-caught fish to global food and nutrition security (SDGs 2, 3 and 14), particularly in countries where alternate sources of animal proteins are not accessible, if attention is given to identifying marginalised groups and supporting equity (Case study 5) (Grantham et al. 2022;Tilley et al. 2021;Allegretti and Hicks 2023). ...
... Acute food insecurity, chronic malnutrition and low dietary diversity are widespread, and half of children under age five are chronically malnourished (Grantham et al. 2022). Fishing is the primary occupation in many coastal communities, and women are as involved in fishing as men (Tilley et al. 2021) (Figure CS-5.1). Yet per capita seafood consumption in Timor-Leste is far below that in other island nations, highlighting the potential for seafood to close significant dietary gaps. ...
