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Climate change is a global phenomenon, and its implications are more critical in a mountainous country like Nepal. Moreover, nearly 80 % of annual precipitation occurs in four months (June-September). Also, Nepal contains 3,252 glaciers and 2,315 glacier lakes of various sizes above 3,500 m that are sensitive to climate change with the annual mean...
Citations
... Rural populations, in particular, rely significantly on a diverse range of forest products and engage in subsistence agriculture, underlining the pivotal role forests play in supporting their means of living [1].Changes in forest conditions directly impact these communities, bearing substantial socio-economic consequences. Furthermore, the significance of forest biodiversity is closely tied to the preservation of watersheds' hydrological cycles and the overall well-being of a myriad of ecosystems present worldwide [3]. ...
Kotma, located in the Anuppur district of Madhya Pradesh, India, occupies a pivotal position between latitude 22°15' to 20°58' N and longitude 81°25' to 20°5' E, affording it a unique and ecologically significant climate. This climatic setup sustains a diverse biological ecosystem that has, unfortunately, been substantially impacted by climate change in recent years. The alterations in the ecosystem and organisms due to climate change have led to significant biodiversity loss, posing a major challenge for Kotma and impacting its richness in various life forms. According to the 2021 India census, Kotma is home to a population of approximately 88,484, with males constituting 50.5% and females 44.5%. The town reports an average literacy rate of 67%, with male literacy at 75.5% and female literacy at 59.5%. Moreover, around 20% of the population is under the age of 6. Kotma is inhabited by several primitive tribal communities, including Baiga, Gonds, Panikas, Kol, and Dhanaur, whose livelihoods heavily rely on the region's forests and agriculture. In recent decades, climate change has led to a decrease in rainy days, significantly affecting crop production and the availability of non-timber forest products (NTFPs). The fisheries sector has also suffered due to these climate-related changes. Additionally, extreme forest fires and overexploitation have adversely impacted the availability of certain medicinal plants in the natural forest, further influencing the region's plant and animal diversity. Addressing and mitigating these climate change impacts is paramount to ensure the sustainable future of Kotma and the well-being of its inhabitants. Implementing strategies for sustainable agriculture, biodiversity conservation, disaster management, and the empowerment of tribal communities are crucial steps towards securing the region's ecological integrity and the livelihoods of its people.
... It is obvious that floods, landslides, and the outspread of diseases due to increased magnitude and frequency of rainfall can physically wipe out forest ecosystem (Castillo et al. 2014). Extreme precipitation, especially in the monsoon, aggravates the risk of soil erosion, nutrient loss and loss of habitats, ultimately reducing the forest biodiversity and leading to loss of species (Sharma et al. 2009). ...
Quantifying the extent of change in climatic and hydrological variables in the past and the future is essential for climate change-resilient development, especially in the climate change sensitive region of Nepal. This paper analyzed future climatic trends and extremes, historical hydrological extremes and their linkage with historical precipitation extremes, and discussed the impacts of climate change on various sectors in the less-studied Small and Medium-sized Eastern River Basins (SMERB) of Nepal. Applying an ensemble of five Coupled Model Intercomparison Project phase 6 (CMIP6) global climate models (GCMs), we evaluated 10 precipitation and 13 temperature extreme indices using Climpact2 for the historical (1979–2020), near-future (2021–2045), mid-future (2046–2070) and far-future (2071–2100) under two Shared Socioeconomic Pathway (SSP), SSP245 and SSP585. Hydrological extreme indices were assessed using Indicators of Hydrologic Alteration tool. Projected climate revealed significant increase (9–73%) in annual and seasonal rainfall except winter; frequent intense rainfall extremes but prolonged dry spells; significant increasing minimum and maximum temperature trends (0.4–5 °C); rise in extreme heat events; increasing minimum and maximum discharge extreme trends in most hydrological stations; as well as strong association between maximum 1 day precipitation (Rx1day) and 1 day max flow for all stations. Growing dry periods but intense rainfall in few wet days, coupled with warming pattern all-over SMERB with frequent extreme events indicate high risk for future climate-related disasters. The harsher climate will potentially have damaging implications, especially in climate-induced disasters, food security, and water and sanitation infrastructure.
... Nepal is already experiencing the negative effect of climate change; this includes as a variability in temperature and precipitation, overbank flooding from snow-fed rivers, amd variability in available river and stream water quantity [19]. Vital sectors such as agriculture, forestry, and biodiversity conservation that are directly related with peoples' livelihoods are also impacted by the changing climate [20]. ...
Irrigation-led farming system intensification and efficient use of ground and surface water resources are currently being championed as a crucial ingredients for achieving food security and reducing poverty in Nepal. The potential scope and sustainability of irrigation interventions under current and future climates however remains poorly understood. Potential adaptation options in Western Nepal were analyzed using bias-corrected Regional Climate Model (RCM) data and the Soil and Water Assessment Tool (SWAT) model. The RCM climate change scenario suggested that average annual rainfall will increase by about 4% with the occurrence of an increased number and intensity of rainfall events in the winter. RCM outputs also suggested that the average annual maximum temperature could decrease by 1.4 C, and the average annual minimum temperature may increase by 0.3 C from 2021 to 2050. Similarly, the average monthly streamflow volume could increase by about 65% from March–April, although it could decrease by about 10% in June. Our results highlight the tight hydrological coupling of surface and groundwater. Farmers making use of surface water for irrigation in upstream subbasins may inadvertently cause a decrease in average water availability in downstream subbasins at approximately 14 %, which may result in increased need to abstract groundwater to compensate for deficits. Well-designed irrigated crop rotations that fully utilize both surface and groundwater conversely may increase groundwater levels by an average of 45 mm from 2022 to 2050, suggesting that in particular subbasins the cultivation of two crops a year may not cause long-term groundwater depletion. Modelled crop yield for the winter and spring seasons was however lower under future climate change scenarios, even with sufficient irrigation application. Lower yields were associated with shortened growing periods and high-temperature stress. Irrigation intensification appears to be feasible if both surface and groundwater resources are appropriately targeted and rationally used. Conjunctive irrigation planning is required for equitable and year-round irrigation supply as neither the streamflow nor groundwater can provide full and year-round irrigation for intensified cropping systems without causing the degradation of natural resources.
... Nepal is already experiencing the negative effect of climate change; this includes as a variability in temperature and precipitation, overbank flooding from snow-fed rivers, amd variability in available river and stream water quantity [19]. Vital sectors such as agriculture, forestry, and biodiversity conservation that are directly related with peoples' livelihoods are also impacted by the changing climate [20]. ...
This study assessed the impact of climate change and management scenarios, on surface and groundwater resources and crop production in Nepal. Irrigation-led intensification is currently being championed as a crucial pillar for achieving food security and poverty in Nepal. But the payoffs and sustainability of this development strategy under future climates remain poorly understood. We addressed this knowledge gap and explored potential adaptation options by forcing the Soil and Water Assessment Tool (SWAT) model with a well-performing and bias-corrected Regional Climate Model NOAA_RegCM4 for the near term (2021 to 2035), and mid-term (2035 to 2050) futures under the RCP 4.5 emissions scenario. The average annual rainfall was projected to increase by about 4% with a shift in peak rainfall from August to July and the occurrence of higher rainfall events in the dry season of a year that can impact irrigation requirements, crop scheduling, and production. The average annual maximum and minimum temperature were projected to decrease by 6% and 2% from 2021 to 2050, having an impact on crop yield. For rice-wheat, rice-lentil, and rice-maize systems that fully utilize both surface and groundwater resources, the model suggested an increase in groundwater levels by an average of 45 mm from 2021 to 2050, which suggests that the cultivation of two crops a year will not cause long-term groundwater depletion, as recharge will increase due to increased precipitation driven by climate change. Corresponding to the change in precipitation pattern, the average monthly streamflow at the outlet of all four watersheds increased by more than 65% from March-April and decreased by about 10% in June. Surface water irrigation at upstream subbasins during the dry season decreased the streamflow and average water availability in downstream subbasins of all four watersheds by around 14 % due to increased groundwater abstraction. Under the projected climate change scenario, crop yield for the winter and spring season was low even after sufficient irrigation and fertilizer were provided because of shortened growing periods and temperature stress, due to greater temperature extreme events. Increasingly erratic events are leading to less water available for groundwater recharge and streamflow despite a slight increase in rainfall. Nevertheless, the model output suggested that climate change is not negatively impacting water resources and thus poses little risk for intensifying irrigation as long as both surface and groundwater resources are used. Conjunctive irrigation planning is required for equitable and year-round irrigation supply as neither the streamflow nor groundwater can provide full and year-round irrigation for intensified cropping system in the study watersheds.
... Indeed, climate change has significant negative impacts on the natural environment, specifically the loss of forest and biodiversity [2]. Over the past decades, the levels of carbon dioxide (CO 2 ) and other greenhouse gases in the Earth's atmosphere have increased dramatically from the burning of fossils and other human activities [3]. Changes in the climate and the concentration of carbon dioxide therefore undoubtedly affect the structure and function of ecosystems and the ecological interactions of species and their ranges, with definite consequences for biodiversity [4]. ...
The impact of anthropogenic activities on the spatiotemporal dynamics of the forest of Dogo-Kétou has been studied in relation to climate change observed in southeastern Benin. Especially, this study has detected the changes in climate parameters in southeast Benin from 1954 to 2016 and in forestland use from 1986 to 2018. A climatic break was detected, and the annual and monthly rainfall and temperature averages, the rainfall indexes, the concentration of precipitation, the number of rainy days according to the World Meteorological Organization and the bioclimatic aridity indexes were assessed. A GIS analysis was also performed based on Landsat images from 1986, 2000 and 2018 to detect the dynamic of land use and land cover of the classified forest of Dogo-Kétou. Excel 2016, Rx64 4.1.2, Rclimdex301, Khronostat1.01 and ArcGIS were used. The rainfall series showed a break in 1969. The segment from 1954 to 1968 was a period of excess rainfall with an average of 1420.46 mm/year. The segment from 1969 to 2016 was a rainfall deficit period with a reduction of 12 to 37% of rainy days and an increase of dry days for 21.4 days/year. In this last segment, southeast Benin experienced trends of its climate towards a sub-arid and arid climate. The agglomerations and bare soil of the forest of Dogo-Kétou increased to an area almost double the size between 1986 and 2018. The tree and shrub savannas gained in space from 12.1% in 2000 to 38.9% in 2018 and the dense forest and wooded savannas regressed by 52.6% in 1986 to 36.1% in 2000 then to 4.3% of the forest area in 2018. The subequatorial climate of southeastern Benin is gradually evolving towards a dry climate. The dense forest in this area is also gradually disappearing, giving way to savannas. This transformation towards the savannas was due to anthropogenic actions whose effects were strongly accentuated by climate change in this part of Benin and West Africa.
... y sectors contribute 26.5 per cent of the total GDP. Only about 20 per cent of the total area is cultivable; another 44.8 per cent is forested; most of the rest is too mountainous for cultivation of any sort (GoN, 2019). The most critical impacts from climate change include more variable precipitation that leads to floods, landslides, and droughts (Castillo et. al. 2014). ...
Within the Chisapani Community Forest Users Group (CFUG), the Laliguras Herbal Women Group (LHWG) run a small-scale enterprise for processing herbal plants and extraction of essential oil called Chisapani Community Herbal Processing Industry (CCHPI). This small-scale business model was initially established to achieve the dual goals of economic benefits and sustainable management of forest resources including underutilized forest land. The enterprise focused on the marginalized, disadvantaged and most vulnerable members of the community by providing them opportunity to become managers of the small-scale enterprise and ensuring direct livelihood benefits to them.
Climate change has begun to affect the livelihoods of farmers in communities such as Chisapani, bringing more variable rainfall, extreme weather events (both storms and floods and droughts), and related crop failures, pests, and diseases. In this context, enterprises such as CCHPI have become increasingly important as a source of climate resilience, and have themselves had to build climate resilience, which has involved diversification of the natural resource base (more aromatic plant options), the economic business propositions (hiring out distillation equipment and investing in new business ventures), and the social support networks (new partnerships and customers).
In terms of the ecological resource base, this was expanded from its original location in what was technically forest land, to include also farming land, and then farming land of different agro-ecological types. This helped in ensuring production of diversified resources and products tapping into different production characteristics of different ecological sites. Then, the enterprise also increases their production options by incorporating alternative species, which started from Patchouli cultivation and later expanded to Citronella, Chamomile, Lemongrass, Mentha, Palmarosa and Wild turmeric.
As regard the economic model, the enterprise initially ran with only one distillation plant. But this was later scaled up to incorporate two additional plants, which provided more opportunities for operating CFUGs by providing distillation facilities to other producers from neighbouring CFUGs to use the plant upon paying a utilization fee. At the broader level of the CFUG, the successful enterprise model has now also been copied with the formation of other enterprise groups which enhance climate resilient livelihoods by incorporating other climate resilient practices in their CF. Among the broader
memberships of the CFUG there are now groups pursuing sustainable tourism, fish farming, renewable energy, scientific forest management, conservation and management of wetland and prohibition of haphazard mining.
In terms of diversified social networks, the group also extended their reach. They facilitated linkages between expanded producers and vendors and buyers, thereby also increasing their network and capacity on negotiation. Their reaching out to neighbouring communities increased their financial return by making more efficient use of their distillation plants. This has generated co-benefits by providing year-round employment opportunities to two staff members, empowering them economically and making them more resilient. The LHWG and hosting CFUG also extended advisory and capacity
building services in peer learning activities sharing their learning and experiences in essential oil production and its potential resilient business options in the region, often in collaboration with Divisional Forest Authorities.
As a result of these diversification strategies, the LHWG enterprise provides resilient livelihood options to the most vulnerable groups among CF members, demonstrating a case of climate resilient sustainable business model.
... Typically, people living in rural areas are greatly dependent on the variety of forest products along with subsistence agriculture and thus play an important role in their livelihood. The importance of forest biodiversity is directly related to the maintenance of hydrological cycle of watersheds and health of a multitude of ecosystems found throughout the world (Castillo et al. 2014). According to the Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO), agriculture, forestry, and fishery sectors will face changes in productivity levels due to climate change. ...
Climate change is perhaps one of the major critical problems of recent times. It has become a subject of international concern since its increase at an alarming speed. Although atmospheric gases, surface solar radiations, volcanic activity, cosmic rays and alterations in earth’s orbit are targeted as the potential causes of climate change, their consequences or impacts are not well documented. Sea level rise, flooding, extreme weather patterns, heat waves and drought are some of the pronounced consequences of climate change. Changes in biodiversity, ecosystem and ecosystem services and health caused by climate change have received minimal attention. A healthy ecosystem requires a wide diversity of microorganisms, plants and animals at different trophic levels. Removal of a single species from the niche or introduction of an invasive species might lead to ecosystem destruction. Abnormal changes in the climate pattern can alter the ecosystem health through loss of species, extinction of species, migration of species and changes in behavioural pattern. However, these changes are invisible till a species get extinct or endangered. Further the change in ecosystem health due to alterations in climate is difficult to record unlike other impacts. Sustainable practices that can reduce, sequester or capture the greenhouse gas emissions may halt the biodiversity loss, protect the ecosystem from further destruction and restore them. This chapter comprehensively describes the impacts of climate change on the health of various aquatic and terrestrial ecosystems. The detrimental effects, short- and long-term responses like changes in physiology, phenology and life cycle of organisms, loss of productivity and loss or migration of species have also been elaborated in detail for every single ecosystem.
... Typically, people living in rural areas are greatly dependent on the variety of forest products along with subsistence agriculture and thus play an important role in their livelihood. The importance of forest biodiversity is directly related to the maintenance of hydrological cycle of watersheds and health of a multitude of ecosystems found throughout the world (Castillo et al. 2014). According to the Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO), agriculture, forestry, and fishery sectors will face changes in productivity levels due to climate change. ...
Abstract
Impact of climate change causes many visible changes within an ecosystem and organism. In recent years, biodiversity loss is one of the challenging issues which are affected by climate change. India has a unique climate which supports rich biological diversity. Amarkantak is a holy town situated in district Anuppur of Madhya Pradesh. Some parts of Amarkantak come under Achanakmar-Amarkantak Biosphere Reserve (AABR). It lies between latitude 22°15 to 20° 58 N and longitude 81° 25 N to 20°5E. The biosphere reserve is an origin place of three major rivers of Central Indian region, i.e., Narmada, Son, and Johila and their tributaries. It is home to primitive tribal communities like Baiga, Gonds, Panikas, Kol, and Dhanaur. All these communities are mostly dependent on the forest and agriculture for their livelihood. Last few decades, climate change impacts on the non-timber forest products (NTFPs) and agricultural crops. A finding of the study shows that locals felt a lesser number of rainy days which directly affect crop production of the area. Apart from that, quantity of NTFPs has also declined. Fishery sector of the area is also affected. The climate of the region supports rich diversity of plants and animals’ species. Few medicinal plants are now not available in natural forest due to extreme forest fires and overexploitation.
Keywords
Climate change Forest Agrobiodiversity Livelihood Amarkantak Madhya Pradesh
Insufficient irrigation with existing water resources constitutes a major reason for low agricultural productivity levels in Nepal. Since large irrigation projects are costly and often prove difficult to manage, small and farmer-led irrigation practices are critical for improving agricultural productivity and profitability. However, the potential impact and sustainability of irrigation expansion and intensification scenarios remain poorly understood. We address this knowledge gap, through a participatory modelling exercise that uses the Soil & Water Assessment Tool (SWAT) model to assess how stakeholder-defined scenarios affect the agricultural and water systems with a special focus on groundwater use and sustainability. The scenarios were developed based on stakeholder engagement meetings and included closing yield gaps in the rice-wheat system, cultivating vegetables between Kharif and spring rice, replacing lentil and fallow with irrigated maize, triple cropping instead of double cropping system, and replacing rainfed rabi crops with horticultural crops. Groundwater irrigation was sustainable if the surface water irrigation was applied to the monsoon crops and the dry season crop was provided with groundwater irrigation. Excessive extraction of groundwater adversely affects streamflow leaving downstream users with insufficient water, mostly during periods of low flow. Groundwater sustainability can be achieved through the implementation of sustainable land management practices such as composting/mulching, conservation tillage, and plantation of cover crops to reduce evaporation and promote groundwater recharge. Such practices can enhance the groundwater recharge by 23-36% and reduce the risks of groundwater overexploitation over time. Moreover, crop yield and production of crops grown during the winter and spring seasons such as winter wheat and winter maize were low even after sufficient irrigation and fertilizer were provided due to the short growing periods and temperature stress. Hence, the cultivation of such crops in dry seasons by expanding costly irrigation facilities requires farmers to time their planting and harvest activities much better through ensured input availability and adequate support. Rather crops like mungbean, lentils, and vegetables which have short growing periods can be suitable as winter crops as they also have higher economic value and environmental benefits.
Impact of climate change causes many visible changes within an ecosystem and organism. In recent years, biodiversity loss is one of the challenging issues which are affected by climate change. India has a unique climate which supports rich biological diversity. Amarkantak is a holy town situated in district Anuppur of Madhya Pradesh. Some parts of Amarkantak come under Achanakmar-Amarkantak Biosphere Reserve (AABR). It lies between latitude 22°15 to 20° 58 N and longitude 81° 25 N to 20°5E. The biosphere reserve is an origin place of three major rivers of Central Indian region, i.e., Narmada, Son, and Johila and their tributaries. It is home to primitive tribal communities like Baiga, Gonds, Panikas, Kol, and Dhanaur. All these communities are mostly dependent on the forest and agriculture for their livelihood. Last few decades, climate change impacts on the non-timber forest products (NTFPs) and agricultural crops. A finding of the study shows that locals felt a lesser number of rainy days which directly affect crop production of the area. Apart from that, quantity of NTFPs has also declined. Fishery sector of the area is also affected. The climate of the region supports rich diversity of plants and animals’ species. Few medicinal plants are now not available in natural forest due to extreme forest fires and overexploitation.