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The manuscript presents the conceptual design phase of an unmanned aerial vehicle, with the objective of a systems approach towards the integration of a hydrogen fuel-cell system and Li-ion batteries into an aerodynamically efficient platform representative of future aircraft configurations. Using a classical approach to aircraft design and a combi...
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... Furthermore, there are highly innovative studies, such as those by Xin Zhao, Zhou Zhou, Xiaoping Zhu, and A. Guo [16], which present the design of a hand-launched solar-powered UAS. Similarly, Jae-Hyun An, Do-Youn Kwon, Kwon-Su Jeon, Maxim Tyan, and Jae-Woo Lee [17], as well as Siwat Suewatanakul et al. [18], proposed the design of electric UASs powered by hydrogen fuel cells and batteries. Lastly, Peter L. Bishay et al. [19] applied "morphing" techniques to UAS design, demonstrating further advancements in this field. ...
The drone industry is continuously growing. The regulatory framework that allows these aircraft to operate safely is gradually evolving, enabling missions with growing associated risks, although it is not progressing at the same speed as the industry itself. To provide certainty to regulators, it is necessary to employ design methodologies that are recognized in the aerospace industry. Therefore, in this work, we addressed the design and manufacturing of a lightweight unconventional-configuration unmanned aircraft by adapting widely known conceptual design methodologies from manned aviation from authors such as Torenbeek and Roskam. Manufacturing was carried out by combining new techniques for the use of composite materials with additive manufacturing. A wide variability in the results was identified across the different models used. However, taking the most restrictive estimates into account, the results show that the structural weight estimates of the wing, made using classical manned aviation methods, align with the final weight obtained, assuming the wing can withstand the aerodynamic and inertial loads applied within a certain safety margin.
... Optimization of dimple design for blended wing body aerodynamics utilization [5][6][7], and cargo transport [8]. Several studies have highlighted an enhancement of up to 20% in the L/D ratio of BWB configurations, predominantly attributed to the absence of empennage [9,10]. ...
This research focuses on optimizing the design of dimples on a Blended-Wing-Body (BWB) airframe to enhance aerodynamic efficiency. Dimples serve as a passive flow control method intended to improve aerodynamic properties. Employing the Design of Experiments (DOE) framework and utilizing the Taguchi method, we examined five dimple design variables across three distinct levels. These variables included dimple placement, indentation depth, diameter, spacing between dimples, and the number of dimple rows on the BWB wing. An L18 orthogonal array (OA) was implemented to assess the impact of these variables on the drag coefficient (CD), lift coefficient (CL), and lift-to-drag ratio (L/D), which were used as performance metrics. High-fidelity Computational Fluid Dynamics (CFD) simulations were conducted for each of the eighteen configurations outlined by the L18 OA, across angles of attack ranging from 0° to 8°. Signal-to-Noise Ratio (SNR) analysis and Pareto Analysis of Variance (ANOVA) revealed that the dimple diameter had the most significant impact on both CD and L/D, contributing 35.19% and 40%, respectively, while the indentation depth showed the least influence. The study identified an optimal combination of design variables (A1B1C1D3E3), which minimizes CD and maximizes L/D. This work provides actionable guidelines for dimple design as a passive flow control method in aerospace applications.
... A hydrogen fuel cell (HFC) is an electric technology that uses hydrogen and oxygen through electrochemical reactions to generate electricity and water vapour so long the hydrogen supply is maintained [9,40,52,[57][58][59][60][61][62]. In HFC, a hydrogen gas (H2), Figure 3, is introduced at the anode electrode which splits into protons (H + ) and electrons (e -), Equation (1). ...
... This integration of HFC, while beneficial, demands specialized maintenance and safety protocols to manage hydrogen handling and system sophistication effectively. Suewatanakul et al. [62], Baroutaji et al. [63], and Romeo et al. [64] have described that the high specific energy delivered by the HFC system makes it an attractive candidate for substituting conventional aircraft propulsion, auxiliary power units (APUs), de-icing systems, and landing gear retraction among others things. However, although HFCs produce electricity and emit only water, Nicolay et al. [20] and Adler and Martins [43] have reported that emitting large amounts of water by HFCs into the environment can lead to a higher production of contrails, which strongly contribute to the radiative forcing when flying at higher altitudes. ...
Recently, the issues of climate change, depletion of petroleum-based fuels, and stringent government regulations have compelled the aviation industry to find alternative energy to conventional kerosene-based sources. While sustainable aviation fuel (SAF) is viewed as a stopgap measure, and batteries have endurance limitations, particularly for large aircraft, hydrogen fuel cells (HFC) have emerged as a beacon of hope, a promising solution to aircraft emissions. The potential of HFC-powered aircraft to significantly reduce emissions, especially those of the CS-23 aircraft category, is a beacon of hope for the future of aviation. Though it presents many economic and design challenges, for decades, many retrofitting and concept designs of HFC-powered aircraft have been conducted to demonstrate its feasibility. Therefore, this review, the result of a comprehensive search strategy to select the most suitable literature, aims to critically analyze the research status of HFC-powered aircraft. The study considered only fixed-wing manned retrofit and concept designs of HFC-powered aircraft by evaluating various published peer-reviewed articles, theses, conferences, and patent papers to explore research gaps. The result of the study revealed the successfully retrofitted and concept designs of HFC-powered aircraft. HFC will significantly reduce aircraft emissions by 75-90%, especially in the CS-23 aircraft category. However, increased aircraft weight, onboard hydrogen storage, propulsion architecture, and system integration significantly affect its design. In conclusion, this review provides an overview and progression of the HFC-powered fixed-wing manned aircraft design concepts and underexplored research areas, offering novel insights into the field.
... From this perspective, retrofitting of existing aircraft with integration of state of art power distribution systems [45] and renewable power-based propulsion system have been investigated for various propulsion system designs including fuel cell powered [9] and fuel cell-battery hybrid powered [10] configurations. Retrofitted H 2 fuel cell hybrid power aircraft and unmanned aerial vehicle concepts have been studied to analyze the performance, lifecycle, and cost parameters of topologies [11] [12] [13]. ...
... For the modelling of the chosen 41Ah battery unit, a scaling procedure is applied for the battery cell model detailed in Section III.B. In order to calculate the number of battery cells in series , , the nominal voltage of the chosen battery , , is divided by modelled cell battery voltage at the end of nominal zone as given in Eq. (13). Similarly, the number of cells connected in parallel , is calculated as ratio of total capacity of the selected battery , and cell battery capacity with using Eq. ...
The electrification of aviation is predominantly driven by environmental concerns associated with emissions. In this context, while the More Electric Aircraft and Hybrid Electric Aircraft concepts are currently at the forefront, the long-term objective is the utilization of All Electric Aircraft. Presently, the transition to All Electric Aircraft, which includes the electrified propulsion system, seems challenging due to the significant energy and power demands of aircrafts, given that the specific energy of recent energy storage technologies and power density of other electrical parts are not at the desired levels. Nevertheless, various scientific findings are being explored to accelerate this process and fuel cells are emerging as a solution. This study examines the retrofitting of a Cessna 172S, selected as the baseline aircraft, into a fully electric version with a hybrid configuration combining a battery and fuel cell. The modification process includes the development of an electrical power system architecture, selection of the required components, and modeling of the system elements. The new configuration of the platform is investigated through various simulations to evaluate the impacts on power sharing of the battery and fuel cell, and a comparative weight analysis is conducted between the baseline and retrofitted aircraft. The study concludes with a critical examination of the benefits and challenges related to the All Electric Aircraft concept.
... Since then, a great deal of research has been done to see whether this revolutionary concept is feasible for a range of applications. Researchers have examined its potential not only for commercial airliners [3,4] but also for Unmanned Aerial Vehicles (UAVs) [5,6] and cargo transportation [7]. Several studies have highlighted that BWB configurations can enhance the L/D ratio by as much as 20%, a significant improvement largely attributed to the elimination of the empennage, which reduces drag-inducing surfaces [8,9]. ...
Blended-Wing-Body (BWB) aircraft designs have attracted considerable attention due to their potential for enhancing aerodynamic efficiency and fuel economy. This study investigates the integration of dimples on BWB airframes to further improve their aerodynamic performance. Computational Fluid Dynamics (CFD) simulations were used to characterize turbulent airflow and estimate the associated aerodynamic forces. The k-ω Shear-Stress Transport (SST) turbulence model was employed to solve the underlying equations. The objective is to investigate the impact of various dimple locations on the suction side of the BWB wing. The simulations were performed at the free stream velocity of 50m/s over the angle of attack ranging from -2° to 6°. The evaluation involved analysing the drag coefficient (CD), lift coefficient (CL) and lift-to-drag (L/D) ratio. The results suggest that in optimal conditions, a BWB featuring a dimpled surface could achieve a reduction in CD of up to 3.04% compared to an unmodified surface, while maintaining lift performance. The results illustrate the feasibility of integrating dimples as a passive flow control technique to enhance BWB aerodynamic performance
... In the past, fuel cells were employed in general aviation only as Auxiliary Power Units in More Electric Aircraft configurations (Motapon et al., 2013). Since the design of the first hydrogen-powered aerial vehicle (Bradley et al., 2007), many fuel cell systems have been proposed for Unmanned Aerial Vehicles (UAVs) (Suewatanakul et al., 2022), ultralight manned aviation and lightweight helicopters for Urban Air Mobility. A selection of projects related to light and ultralight aviation is reported in Table 2. ...
... The sizing methodologies proposed in the scientific literature can be classified into retrofitting techniques (Mazzeo and Di Ilio, 2024) and conceptual design methods (Suewatanakul et al., 2022;Moffitt et al., 2006;Donateo and Çinar, 2022). A parametric analysis that considers three different levels of the fuel cell power is performed in (Mazzeo and Di Ilio, 2024) where the size of the battery is kept constant while the amount of hydrogen stored on board is reduced with increased fuel cell power to keep the takeoff mass. ...
Hydrogen power systems are one of the main development prospects of our century in all means of transportation. Among them, the conversion of hydrogen energy in a fuel cell system guarantees the highest value of efficiency. However, fuel cells need to be coupled with a secondary electric storage system in mobility applications because of their limitations in terms of dynamic response and power density. In the present investigation, the preliminary design of a hybrid electric power system with fuel cells for an ultralight aerial vehicle is addressed with a retrofitting approach. The proposed power system includes a fuel cell, a lithium battery, and a compressed hydrogen vessel to replace the conventional piston-prop configuration while keeping the same maximum takeoff mass. A simple but comprehensive procedure is used to find the size of the power system components that minimize the total mass and satisfy the target of a size below 200 L. The inputs of the para-metric analysis are the hybridization ratio and the type of lithium battery. The results of the analysis revealed that fuel cell systems are suitable for the electrification of ultralight aviation if the desired endurance is higher than 30 min In this case, batteries by high power density are needed to satisfy the power requirements at takeoff. For shorter flight times, a battery configuration is to be preferred and energy density is the most critical parameters for the choice of the battery. The possibility of charging the battery on-board determines a larger fuel cell and a higher consumption of hydrogen than a charge depleting strategy (+10 %) but avoid long charging times between two consecutive flights.
... Hydrogen tanks, designed to store and deliver this highly flammable fuel safely, play a critical role in enabling the use of this energy carrier as a fuel in aircraft. These vessels used in aviation must be designed with geometrical, mechanical and thermal aspects in mind as well as specific considerations regarding the aircraft's mission profile [65]. ...
The aviation industry is facing challenges related to its environmental impact and thus the pressing need to develop aircraft technologies aligned with the society climate goals. Hydrogen is emerging as a potential clean fuel for aviation, as it offers several advantages in terms of supply potential and weight specific energy. One of the key factors enabling the use of H2 in aviation is the development of reliable and safe storage technologies to be integrated into aircraft design. This work provides an overview of the technologies currently being investigated or developed for the storage of hydrogen within the aircraft, which would enable the use of hydrogen as a sustainable fuel for aviation, with emphasis on tanks material and structural aspects. The requirements dictated by the need of integrating the fuel system within existing or ex-novo aircraft architectures are discussed. Both the storage of gaseous and liquid hydrogen are considered and the main challenges related to the presence of either high internal pressures or cryogenic conditions are explored, in the background of recent literature. The materials employed for the manufacturing of hydrogen tanks are overviewed. The need to improve the storage tanks efficiency is emphasized and issues such as thermal insulation and hydrogen embrittlement are covered as well as the reference to the main structural health monitoring strategies. Recent projects dealing with the development of onboard tanks for aviation are eventually listed and briefly reviewed. Finally, considerations on the tank layout deemed more realistic and achievable in the near future are discussed.
... Compared to traditional fuels, hydrogen storage poses challenges due to its low volumetric energy density. Hydrogen tanks require careful design encompassing geometric, mechanical, and thermal constraints, as well as the consideration of the aircraft's specific mission profile [4]. The tank gravimetric efficiency defined as ...
The aviation industry is facing environmental challenges, prompting the need for aircraft technologies aligned with climate goals. Hydrogen has emerged as a clean fuel option, offering significant advantages in supply potential and sustainability. Reliable and safe storage technologies are crucial for integrating this fuel into aircraft design. This overview examines current storage technologies for hydrogen in aviation, emphasizing tank materials and structural aspects to enable sustainable fuel use. Requirements for integrating fuel systems into existing or new aircraft architectures are discussed, considering both gaseous and liquid hydrogen storage. Both high pressures and cryogenic storage conditions are explored. Materials for hydrogen tanks are reviewed, with a focus on improving efficiency and addressing issues like thermal insulation and hydrogen embrittlement.
... There are various design and development studies on BWB UAV that have been carried out and published. For instance, Suewatanakul et al. [4] applied a combination of traditional aircraft design methods and both low-and highresolution computational simulations to develop blendedwing-body (BWB) UAV. In the study, they emphasized the importance for identification of mission requirements during initial stage of conceptual design process as these requirements will guide the design and determine the final configuration. ...
Unmanned aerial vehicles (UAVs) have found many applications today. One of them is for transportation and delivery of parcels. In this study, flight performance analysis of Baseline-X blended-wing-body (BWB) UAV, which is designed and developed for transportation of parcels, is conducted. Mission requirements for the BWB UAV are specified and tailored to the anticipated necessary performance to execute the delivery mission profile. The analysis adopts several traditional formulas that have been used for evaluating aircraft performance, which involves theoretical calculations, iterative computations and also data analyses. Among others, the performance parameters that are estimated for the Baseline-X BWB UAV design in this study include range, endurance, rate of climb, maneuverability, velocity and others. Based on the estimated performance parameters, the Baseline-X BWB UAV is shown to have adequate capabilities to perform the intended parcel delivery mission. Moving forward, the use of higher fidelity methods and tools is necessary to better predict the actual flight performance of the Baseline-X BWB UAV.
... The symbiotic relationship between FANETs and AI techniques presents both exciting prospects and enduring challenges, shaping the trajectory of these technologies in the dynamic world of airborne communication [27] [28] [29] [30]. ...
