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4 Virola surinamensis: A) Branch with inflorescence and abaxial leaf surface. B) Branch of mature tree with inflorescences. C) Undehisced, nearly mature fruits and dehisced fruit showing red aril (inset). D) Branches and stilt roots typical of this species. E) Close-up of inflorescence. F) Staminate flower with petal dissected to show androecium (scale bar= 0.5 mm).
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The Myristicaceae, or nutmeg family, consists of 21 genera and about 500 species
of dioecious canopy to sub canopy trees that are distributed worldwide in tropical
rainforests. The Myristicaceae are of considerable ecological and ethnobotanical
significance as they are important food for many animals and are harvested by humans
for timber, spices,...
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A taxonomic synopsis of Virola (Myristicaceae) is presented for Mesoamerica. Fourteen species are recognised, amongst them six are described and published as new, based on morphology: V. allenii D.Santam. & Aguilar, sp. nov. from Costa Rica, V. otobifolia D.Santam., sp. nov. from Panama and V. amistadensis D.Santam., sp. nov. , V. chrysocarpa D.San...
Citations
... Virola is a large to intermediate rainforest tree (Marchant et al., 2002) that typically grows in inundated forests (Ferreira et al., 1997). The values of Virola pollen may represent the abundance of Virola plants and the degree of inundation in the local area, as the pollinators of Virola are insects (Poinar and Steeves, 2013;Steeves, 2011). Therefore, the high abundance of Virola indicates that the inundated forest of the coring site was formed since 7000 cal yr BP. ...
... The chloroplast intergenic spacer psbA-trnH (psbAF as Sang et al. (1997); trnH2 as in Tate and Simpson (2003); and two nuclear sequences, At103 (Li et al. 2008) and Agt1 (modified for Myristicaceae species as in Steeves (2011), were amplified on 90 samples chosen to represent the genetic clusters detected using SSRs (see the "Genetic clustering using SSR data" section) and sent for sequencing at Macrogen Inc. (Seoul, South Korea). ...
Documenting species and population diversity is becoming increasingly important as the destruction and degradation of natural ecosystems are leading to a worldwide biodiversity loss. Despite the rapid development of genetic tools, many species remain undocumented and little is known about the diversity of individuals and populations, especially for tropical African plants. In this study, we aim to identify putative hidden species and/or differentiated populations in the tropical African tree Staudtia kamerunensis Warb. (Myristicaceae), a widespread species characterized by a high morphological diversity and a complex taxonomical history. Historical herbarium vouchers were sampled and leaf or cambium samples were collected in the field, dried in silica gel, and subsequently genotyped at 14 microsatellite loci (SSRs), as well as sequenced for two nuclear genes (At103, Agt1) and one plastid region (psbA-trnH). These genetic data were then analyzed using Bayesian clustering, population genetics, and the construction of haplowebs to assess genetic clustering patterns, the distribution of genetic diversity, and genetic differentiation among populations. Multiple genetically differentiated clusters were observed in parapatry throughout Central Africa. Genetic diversity was high and similar among these clusters, apart from the most differentiated populations in southeast Democratic Republic of the Congo (DR Congo), which showed lower levels of genetic diversity. The genetic breaks detected between S. kamerunensis populations are likely not indicative of hidden species but rather result from ancient rainforest fragmentation during cold and dry periods in the Pliocene and/or Pleistocene. The strong genetic divergence between populations in southeast DR Congo could be the result of an ongoing speciation linked to ecological niche differentiation.
... D.Don (Bignoniaceae ) (Scotti-Saintagne et al., 2012) have revealed weak spatial genetic structure at regional (100-1000 km) and/or continental scales (> 1000 km) with evidence of long-distance dispersal events across major geographical barriers such as the Andean Cordillera. Furthermore, weak genetic structure in V. sebifera has also been confirmed at local scales (Steeves, 2011). In summary, such multiple levels of evidence would suggest that the effective population sizes of many hyperdominant species, such as V. sebifera, may be defined by their entire distribution. ...
... Phenotypic variation in V. sebifera was uncoupled among the two trait classes offering partial support for the CP hypothesis. Indeed, an investigation of intraspecific morphological and genetic variation of V. sebifera in south-eastern Peru (Steeves, 2011) revealed high phenotypic variation in foliar morphology suggesting low spatial autocorrelation for vegetative traits even at local scales. However, variation in pedicel length is significantly greater than variation in all other 'purely' reproductive/ floral traits. ...
Many Neotropical tree species are widespread at continental and even inter-continental scales, but phenotypic variation across their respective ranges has rarely been quantified. We measured traits in the widespread, unisexual Neotropical tree Virola sebifera (Myristicaceae) across its continental-scale range, and predicted that, given its hyperdominant status, generalist-pollinated flower type, high dispersal capacity and wide ecological amplitude there would be: (1) a weak relationship among and within reproductive and vegetative characters with environmental, spatial and biome correlates; (2) undetectable canalization of reproductive traits; and (3) high phenotypic variation of vegetative characters. We measured five foliar and seven floral traits from 187 male-expressing individuals of V. sebifera in specimens collected from Central to South America. Spatial regression models were employed to test for the importance of distance, elevation, mean annual rainfall and temperature on phenotypic variation. Pairwise correlations of vegetative and reproductive characters were calculated to examine intraspecific trait variation among and within these two classes. We found that most phenotypic variation was weakly explained by spatial predictors such as certain major South American domains like the Andes Cordillera and the Amazon Basin. Within-class comparisons of floral characters were no different than among-class (floral-foliar) correlates, suggesting the absence of canalization of reproductive structures. Greater phenotypic variation in flowers relative to leaves may be due to the generalist pollinator regime and high dispersal capacity thus relaxing divergences in the evolutionary process of its floral morphology. The results of these morphometric analyses (e.g. weak signals of isolation by distance) in combination with the biology of this Neotropical tree suggest that V. sebifera operates as a well-dispersed metapopulation across most of its range.
... Recent contributions include a vegetative identification key for 25 species of Virola (and four additional genera of Myristicaceae) from the Rio Negro basin (Aymard et al. 2020) and a key to the majority (i.e., 34 of 35) of species native to Brazil (Oliveira 2021). Despite its ecological and ethnobotanical importance, the phylogenetic analyses of the genus are limited, with a single well-sampled analysis supporting the resolution of two large subclades, informally called "Multinervae" and "Sebiferae" (Steeves 2011). ...
With about 70 species Virola , is the largest genus of Myristicaceae in the Neotropics, the genus ranked in the top ten genera of abundance across Amazonia. Ten new species are proposed in this striking genus, which are described based on morphology, and are illustrated. The new species were discovered thanks to herbarium specimens collected mainly in the 1980s and 1990s when field documentations were more active. The new species come from Colombia ( V. calimensis sp. nov. , V. cogolloi sp. nov. , V. excisa sp. nov. , V. tuckerae sp. nov. ), Ecuador ( V. alvaroperezii sp. nov. , V. bombuscaroensis sp. nov. , V. calimensis , V. excisa , V. yasuniana sp. nov. ), Peru ( V. aguarunana sp. nov. , V. cumala sp. nov. , V. excisa , V. parkeri sp. nov. ), and Brazil ( V. excisa , V. yasuniana ). Additionally, a lectotype is designated for V. macrocarpa , a name used to identify some specimens of the new species here described, and V. kwatae is reported for the first time for Brazil. We provide a comparation table between the new species and the species that is morphologically close to it, a preliminary list of species for the genus, and notes of how the new species were treated in floras, checklists, or collections that need more study and herbarium specimens.
... En los bosques de la Amazonia, las especies de la familia Myristicaceae como Virola elongata y Compsoneura capitellata son un importante componente en las unidades geomorfológicas montañosas (Queenborough et al., 2007). Estas especies tienen frutos carnosos y semilla de endospermo comestible cubierto por arilo graso y colorido, que son atractivos para la fauna (Taylor y Devia, 2000;Steeves, 2011). Es el caso del mono araña (Ateles panicus) que se alimenta de los frutos y dispersa las semillas, esto permite mantener la estructura de las poblaciones de estas especies vegetales (Russo & Augspurger, 2004;Orduz, 2015). ...
... La especie Compsoneura capitellata presenta fruto tipo cápsula drupácea, es carnosa y de color rojo, el endospermo es aromático y el arilo es rico en lípidos, siendo fuente de alimento para la fauna silvestre (Van Roosmalen et al., 1996;Prieto, 2012). Las semillas son dispersadas por mamíferos y aves como tucanes (Ramphastos sulfuratus) y pavas (Penelope sp.) (Steeves, 2011). La especie Virola elongata tiene frutos carnosos con arilo aromático rico en grasas, proteínas y carbohidratos, haciéndolos atractivos para la fauna, principalmente las aves (Howe & Vande Kerkhove, 1981;Howe et al., 1985;Steeves, 2011). ...
... Las semillas son dispersadas por mamíferos y aves como tucanes (Ramphastos sulfuratus) y pavas (Penelope sp.) (Steeves, 2011). La especie Virola elongata tiene frutos carnosos con arilo aromático rico en grasas, proteínas y carbohidratos, haciéndolos atractivos para la fauna, principalmente las aves (Howe & Vande Kerkhove, 1981;Howe et al., 1985;Steeves, 2011). Esta especie presentó valores promedio altos de área de copa (AC), densidad de copa (DC) y dispersión por zoocoria. ...
En el libro SUCESIÓN ECOLÓGICA EN PAISAJES FRAGMENTADOS DE LA
AMAZONIA COLOMBIANA se presentan los principales avances, en la generación
de conocimiento, sobre la sucesión ecológica en los bosques secundarios,
en áreas con alto grado de fragmentación en la Amazonia colombiana. A
partir de dicho conocimiento, se muestran los diseños y las consideraciones
técnicas y sociales para la implementación de acciones de restauración ecológica.
La síntesis aquí presentada es una fuente de información académica
para la formación de recurso humano y es el punto de partida para investigaciones
futuras en torno a la sucesión ecológica, en bosques secundarios
y su restauración. Adicionalmente, se constituye en una oferta tecnológica
relevante para la Amazonia nor-occidental, para el desarrollo de procesos de
restauración ecológica de las áreas de pasturas degradadas por uso ganadero
y las áreas de protección de fuentes hídricas y humedales, consideradas
como los ecosistemas más impactados en la intervención agropecuaria de la
Amazonia y de mayor vulnerabilidad ante los efectos del cambio climático.
Los resultados contenidos en esta publicación se obtuvieron en desarrollo
del proyecto de investigación “Restauración de Áreas Disturbadas
por Implementación de Sistemas Productivos Agropecuarios en zonas
de Alta Intervención en el Caquetá “ejecutado mediante el Convenio
No. 60-2013 suscrito entre la Gobernación del Caquetá y el Instituto Amazónicode
Investigaciones Científicas SINCHI; co-ejecutado con la Universidad
dela Amazonia, la Asociación de Reforestadores y Cultivadores de Caucho
de Caquetá, (Asoheca) y la Federación Departamental de Ganaderos del
Caquetá, (Fedeganga); cofinanciado con recursos del Fondo de Ciencia,
Tecnología e Innovación - FCTeI del Sistema General de Regalías – SGR
... We have studied the intensity of gene flow during and after speciation through a combination of coalescent modeling and ABC inference in the Neotropical Virola genus, which shows a large ecological and species diversity (Wilson, 2004). The resolution of Virola phylogeny is not so well-defined (Steeves, 2011), suggesting that some groups of species are related closely enough that they may be connected by interspecific gene flow. Given that some clades with poor resolution include species with contrasting ecological preferences, this genus is a good model to assess the amount of interspecific gene flow occurring between closely related, ecologically divergent species. ...
... The Virola genus belongs to Myristicaceae (the nutmeg family), a widely distributed pantropical plant family, member of Magnoliales, and one of the oldest families of flowering plants (Cronquist, 1981;Doyle, Manchester, & Sauquet, 2008;Doyle, Sauquet, Scharaschkin, & Le Thomas, 2004). The Neotropical genus Virola is one of ten most common Amazonian tree genera in order of abundance (ter Steege et al., 2013), comprising between 45 (Wilson, 2004) and 60 (Steeves, 2011) species and having its center of diversity in Western Amazonia (Holbrook, Loiselle, & Clark, 2006;Queenborough, Burslem, Garwood, & Valencia, 2007). The genus' phylogenetic resolution is incomplete (Steeves, 2011). ...
... The Neotropical genus Virola is one of ten most common Amazonian tree genera in order of abundance (ter Steege et al., 2013), comprising between 45 (Wilson, 2004) and 60 (Steeves, 2011) species and having its center of diversity in Western Amazonia (Holbrook, Loiselle, & Clark, 2006;Queenborough, Burslem, Garwood, & Valencia, 2007). The genus' phylogenetic resolution is incomplete (Steeves, 2011). Virola species are relatively common dioecious canopy trees in the Guiana shield and throughout the Amazon (ter Steege et al., 2013). ...
Phylogenetic patterns and the underlying speciation processes can be deduced from morphological, functional, and ecological patterns of species similarity and divergence. In some cases, though, species retain multiple similarities and remain almost indistinguishable; in other cases, evolutionary convergence can make such patterns misleading; very often in such cases, the “true” picture only emerges from carefully built molecular phylogenies, which may come with major surprises. In addition, closely related species may experience gene flow after divergence, thus potentially blurring species delimitation. By means of advanced inferential methods, we studied molecular divergence between species of the Virola genus (Myristicaceae): widespread Virola michelii and recently described, endemic V. kwatae, using widespread V. surinamensis as a more distantly related outgroup with different ecology and morphology—although with overlapping range. Contrary to expectations, we found that the latter, and not V. michelii, was sister to V. kwatae. Therefore, V. kwatae probably diverged from V. surinamensis through a recent morphological and ecological shift, which brought it close to distantly related V. michelii. Through the modeling of the divergence process, we inferred that gene flow between V. surinamensis and V. kwatae stopped soon after their divergence and resumed later, in a classical secondary contact event which did not erase their ecological and morphological differences. While we cannot exclude that initial divergence occurred in allopatry, current species distribution and the absence of geographical barriers make complete isolation during speciation unlikely. We tentatively conclude that (a) it is possible that divergence occurred in allopatry/parapatry and (b) secondary contact did not suppress divergence.
... The core of taxonomy is to classify, identify, and describe organisms (Simpson, 2010;Steeves, 2011); as such, species delimitation is a crucial issue for biodiversity conservation (Niu et al., 2018). Traditional identification mainly relies on morphology, but this is often complicated by phenotypic plasticity, or the presence of morphologically cryptic taxa leading to identification errors, especially in the field (Hebert et al., 2003). ...
... For example, the core barcode loci rbcL and matK are applied widely for plant species delimitation and identification of unknown samples (CBOL Plant Working Group, 2009). However, although DNA barcoding could potentially revolutionize species identification, poor sequence quality, hybridization, and incomplete lineage sorting resulting from relatively recent taxon origin could make targeted gene barcoding insufficient for delimitating some species (Steeves, 2011). Fortunately, recent studies have revealed that whole chloroplast genome sequences can serve as super-barcodes for species identification, providing useful information due to their relatively small size, non-recombinant, highly conserved nature, and maternal inheritance (Sato et al., 1999;Nock et . ...
The biologist's ruler for biodiversity is the species and accurate species identification is fundamental to the conservation of endangered species and in‐depth biological scientific exploration. However, the delimitation and affinities of Horsfieldia in China has been controversial, owing in part to very low levels of molecular divergence within the family Myristicaceae. Because species boundaries and phylogenetic relationships within Horsfieldia are also unclear, 13 samples were collected across its distribution in China and their genomes were subjected to shotgun sequencing using Illumina platforms. A total of 40 487 994–84 801 416 pair‐end clean reads were obtained and after assembly, the complete chloroplast genome was recovered for all samples. Annotation analysis revealed a total of 112 genes, including 78 protein‐coding genes, 30 tRNA and four rRNA genes. Six variable loci (petN‐psbM, trnH‐psbA, ndhC‐trnV, psbJpsbL, ndhF, and rrn5‐rrn23) were identified. Phylogenetic analyses strongly support the presence of four distinct species of Horsfieldia in China. In addition, samples that had been identified previously as H. kingii were indistinguishable from those of H. prainii, suggesting that if H. kingii does occur in China, it was not collected in this study. Similarly, the chloroplast genome of one H. hainanensis sample from Guangxi province was identical to H. tetratepala, suggesting that the distribution range of H. hainanensis may be narrower than assumed previously. The phylogenetic relationships between the Chinese Horsfieldia species based on the whole chloroplast genomes was supported strongly, indicating the potential for using entire chloroplast genomes as super‐barcodes for further resolution of the phylogeny of the genus Horsfieldia. This article is protected by copyright. All rights reserved.
... Not surprisingly, given the importance of their fruits as a food for wildlife and its abundance in many lowland forests, the ecological importance of Virola has been extensively documented (e.g. Frankie et al. 1974;Pitman et al. 2008;Steeves 2011;Riba Hernández 2017). Below, we provide a review of the morphology, biogeography, taxonomic history and ethnobotanical uses of Virola. ...
... Virola has been the subject of limited phylogenetic analysis. The first molecular phylogenetic study of Virola-and the only to date-demonstrated that the genus is divided into two large subclades, informally called "Multinervae" and "Sebiferae" (Steeves 2011). Morphologically, Multinervae is composed of tall emergent canopy trees that typically have more numerous secondary leaf veins, thicker pericaps and arils that are lacinate throughout their length, compared to the sub-canopy to canopy species of Sebiferae that have fewer secondary veins, thin pericarps and arils that are only lacinate for half of their length. ...
A taxonomic synopsis of Virola (Myristicaceae) is presented for Mesoamerica. Fourteen species are recognised, amongst them six are described and published as new, based on morphology: V. allenii D.Santam. & Aguilar, sp. nov. from Costa Rica, V. otobifolia D.Santam., sp. nov. from Panama and V. amistadensis D.Santam., sp. nov. , V. chrysocarpa D.Santam. & Aguilar, sp. nov. , V. fosteri D.Santam., sp. nov. and V. montana D.Santam., sp. nov. from both Costa Rica and Panama. Additionally, a lectotype is designated for V. koschnyi , accompanied by an epitype in view of the fragmentary material. Finally, we recognise V. laevigata and V. nobilis as morphologically distinct species, though these are frequently considered synonymys of V. guatemalensis and V. surinamensis , respectively. Of the fourteen accepted species, twelve of them are endemic to Mesoamerica, while the remaining two species ( V. elongata and V. sebifera ) extend into South America. Illustrations, species diagnoses and distribution maps for each species are provided, as is an identification key to all species.
... Therapeutic drug specialists asserted that seed of Myristica fragrans can be utilized as carminative, astringent, hypolipidaemic, antithrombotic, antiplatelet total, antifungal, treatment of dyspepsia 21,22 , muscle and joint weakness, stomach problem, kidney stone, liver detoxification, digestion, increase blood circulation 23, respiration and it additionally has properties of anti-inflammatory diseases 24. One of the reviews of 25 also stated, that chemically synthesized compound of Myristica fragrans has been deductively approved to treat hypolipidemic and hypocholesterolemic, antidepressant, aphrodisiac, antimicrobial, upper, antioxidant, memory-boosting, and hepatoprotective properties. ...
Introduction: Bioactive compounds from herbal plants possess a wide range of pharmaceutical activities and one among them is Myristica fragrans (Nutmeg). Aim: Antibacterial screening of the different solvent extracted phytoconstituents showed maximum growth inhibitory effect against E.coli and S. mutans. Agar well diffusion sensitivity testing method was adopted for this study. Method: Acetone extract of the seeds also performed good bactericidal effect against the bacterial pathogens. Result: MTT assay also demonstrated good cytotoxic effect against MCF-7 cell lines in a dose-dependent manner with inhibitory concentration (IC50) achieved at 62.5 µg/mL. Conclusion: Based on the findings of the study, seeds of Myristica fragrans could be exploited in developing potential bioactive pharmaceutical drugs for effective treatment of cancer. © 2019, Indian Journal of Public Health Research and Development. All rights reserved.
... This impact may be the presence of active dynamic Phytochemical like alkaloids, carotenoids, Flavonoids, ligands, phenols, and terpenoids, in the natural herbal source plants 19,20,21 . Therapeutic plants utilized for treatment enclose a large scope of the in gradient which may be utilized to treat infectious harmful disorders; hence medical microbiologist and clinical chemist have shown extraordinary interest for screening Therapeutic plants for modern therapeutics treatment 22 . ...
Introduction: Bioactive compounds from herbal plants possess a wide range of pharmaceutical activities and one among them is Myristica fragrans (Nutmeg). Aim: The present study involves extraction of potential phyto chemicals from the seed part of Myristica fragrans and to explore its biological activities. Method: Different solvents such as aqueous, acetone, ethyl acetate and chloroform were attempted to extract the Phytochemical from the seed. Among them, high yield of the extract was obtained with an aqueous solvent. Preliminary screening tests confirmed the presence of several Phytochemical in the seeds extracted with different solvents. Result: The analysis of GC-MS represents a variety of potential bioactive products that was extracted from ethyl acetates such as tetradecanoic acid, N-hexadecanoic acid, and oleic acid, Benzene, 1,2,3-Trimethoxy- 5-(2-Propenyl), 2-Hydroxy-4-Isopropyl-7-Methoxytropone that to identify anticancer compounds present in the active seed extract. Conclusion: The analysis of Fourier Transform Infrared Spectrometer instrument and spectra obtained for the Myristica fragrans was interpreted with Characteristics IR absorption frequencies of Hydroxyl functional groups and carbonyl containing functional group. © 2019, Indian Journal of Public Health Research and Development. All rights reserved.
