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Violin plot depicting the frequency distribution of saccade end positions (saccadic gain: 0 = screen center, 1 = effect position, 1 = opposite position) per effect-delay condition (short vs. long) and response occurrence. Response occurrence corresponds to the X th time a response was correctly performed in a sequence leading to the respective effect; 1-6). For instance, the second time participants correctly performed a right response in a sequence was the second response occurrence. Saccade end positions were mapped, so that positive saccadic gain values indicate saccades toward the effect (green/upper dashed line = effect position) and negative values indicate saccades away from the effect (orange/lower dashed line = opposite position). See the online article for the colour version of this figure.

Violin plot depicting the frequency distribution of saccade end positions (saccadic gain: 0 = screen center, 1 = effect position, 1 = opposite position) per effect-delay condition (short vs. long) and response occurrence. Response occurrence corresponds to the X th time a response was correctly performed in a sequence leading to the respective effect; 1-6). For instance, the second time participants correctly performed a right response in a sequence was the second response occurrence. Saccade end positions were mapped, so that positive saccadic gain values indicate saccades toward the effect (green/upper dashed line = effect position) and negative values indicate saccades away from the effect (orange/lower dashed line = opposite position). See the online article for the colour version of this figure.

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Cognitive control is essential for adaptive goal-directed action and has been linked to learning. Here, we investigated whether proactive effect monitoring (i.e., a proactive cognitive control process) could be instantiated by one-shot learning. When an action consistently yields the same effect, we form a bi-directional action-effect association....