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... The water balance for the swale was defined as where V in : inflow volume, V out : outflow volume, and V losses : water lost due to infiltration and evapotranspiration (Revitt et al. 2017). Evapotranspiration as a loss in swales is important for modeling long-term swale water balance (Deletic 2000) but is often neglected in field studies due to the relatively short rainfall/runoff events (Gavrić et al. 2019;Marsalek 2008). In a similar plot-scale study with a short exposure time, Rujner et al. (2018) represented the water loss as infiltration. ...
Swales are a low-cost, conveyance and treatment system to manage roadway runoff, but available design guidance is limited. Eight grass swales were constructed in Raleigh, North Carolina, USA, to systematically evaluate the effects of design factors: length, shape, and longitudinal slope under two different storm sizes. Water from an onsite reservoir was used to generate synthetic runoff and simulate flow through the swales. Inflow volume, total suspended sediment (TSS), nitrogen, phosphorus, and four total metals (copper, lead, zinc, and cadmium) were tested with simulated levels representing highway runoff. Efficiency ratios were used to estimate the reductions in inflow volume, pollutant concentrations, and mass loads. Swale length, shape, longitudinal slope, and storm size significantly influenced runoff volume reduction. The longer (30 m) trapezoidal swale constructed on the flatter (1%) longitudinal slope provided maximum reductions in sediment and heavy metal concentrations during small-medium storms. Larger storms had modestly reduced pollutant and volume mitigation. Effluent nutrient concentrations generally exceeded the influent exporting nitrogen and phosphorus from all swale configurations. Significantly better pollutant load reductions were provided by the longer swales for all pollutants, except dissolved phosphorus. Therefore, to optimize swale function, designers could maximize the swale length to the greatest extent practicable, particularly when swales receive inflow from end-of-pipe systems draining roadway surfaces. The trapezoidal cross-section was superior to the triangular cross-section for stormwater treatment. Proper vegetation establishment and maintaining optimal grass height are key to proper swale functioning.
Graphical abstract
... XC is only open to traffic in June, so construction (F2) is the main human activity. During highway construction, large amounts of exhaust and dust from vehicles, as well as sediment and soil, can enter runoff and water bodies through rainfall [2, 43,44]. ...
... Urban regions consist of a mix of impermeable and permeable surfaces, resulting in intricate patterns of rainfall and runoff over both space and time [1][2][3]. The prevalence of paved surfaces reduces water infiltration and increases runoff after precipitation events, potentially exerting a significant influence on streamflow patterns and flood risk [4][5][6][7][8][9]. As urbanization accelerates and climate change progresses, extreme weather events are becoming more frequent than in the past, leading to significant challenges for urban areas, such as increased instances of urban waterlogging [10]. ...
... Urban runoff, also known as urban stormwater, urban run-off, surface, or rainwater runoff encompasses the runoff, resulting primarily from precipitation on impermeable surfaces within urban environments, such as rooftops, pavements, roadways, and parking areas [12][13][14]. Furthermore, in regions experiencing seasonal snowfall, urban runoff also includes snowmelt [4][5][6]. This runoff carries large quantities of sediments shifting the paradigm of soil and water pollution management towards nature-based solutions that promote the concept of Low-Impact Development (LID). ...
... However, most pollutants present in the air, soil, and water return to the Earth's surface through wet or dry deposition or by being absorbed by aerosol particles. This includes gaseous pollutants, which can be transferred through surface waters or soil [6,[48][49][50]. A significant portion of pollutant transfer from the atmosphere to the Earth's surface occurs through wet deposition, specifically precipitation and atmospheric deposition [6,48,51]. ...
The increase in the quantity and variety of contaminants generated during routine airport infrastructure maintenance operations leads to a wider range of pollutants entering soil and surface waters through runoff, causing soil erosion and groundwater pollution. A significant developmental challenge is ensuring that airport infrastructure meets high-quality environmental management standards. It is crucial to have effective tools for monitoring and managing the volume and quality of stormwater produced within airports and nearby coastal areas. It is necessary to develop methodologies for determining a wide range of contaminants in airport stormwater samples and assessing their toxicity to improve the accuracy of environmental status assessments. This manuscript aims to showcase the latest advancements (2010–2024 update) in developing methodologies, including green analytical techniques, for detecting a wide range of pollutants in airport runoff waters and directly assessing the toxicity levels of airport stormwater effluent. An integrated chemical and ecotoxicological approach to assessing environmental pollution in airport areas can lead to precise environmental risk assessments and well-informed management decisions for sustainable airport operations. Furthermore, this critical review highlights the latest innovations in remediation techniques and various strategies to minimize airport waste. It shifts the paradigm of soil and water pollution management towards nature-based solutions, aligning with the sustainable development goals of the 2030 Agenda.
... From a hydrological perspective, water cycling system refers to the cycling of natural water bodies, which includes water precipitation and evaporation, water-source conservation and infiltration, and runoff (Chen et al., 2019a, b). From a social perspective, the water cycling system focuses on the transformation activities and measures during the utilization process of water resources, which covers the whole processes of water collection, water supply, water consumption, drainage and wastewater treatment (Marsalek, 2014). Accordingly, a regional water cycling system can be illustrated graphically as shown in Fig. 4.5. ...
... Fig. 4.5 Regional water cycling system. (Marsalek, 2014;Chen et al., 2019a, b) In Fig. 4.5, RWCS consists of four subsystems: water sources, water supply, water consumption, and drainage. The four subsystems formulate a cycling chain in utilizing water resources and each subsystem assumes the role of a linkage which is indispensable and contains different elements. ...
This chapter introduces a new method, URECC-LC, for assessing urban resources environment carrying capacity (URECC) from a load-and-carrier perspective, after reviewing existing literature to underline its significance for sustainable urban development. The method, rooted in dynamics discipline principles, views the urban resources environment as a system comprising urban loads (UL) and urban carriers (UC), and measures URECC by considering both elements. This approach not only facilitates effective evaluation of URECC but also extends its implications to sustainable development and urban resilience, and introduces a virtual threshold for its limitations. An application of the URECC-LC method to 35 large Chinese cities demonstrates its effectiveness in assessing urban water resources environment carrying capacity.
... As spatio-temporal distribution of water and its impact on urbanization are uneven, urban water management demands a holistic approach by recognizing historical, social, cultural, economic, regulatory, and institutional contexts along with climatic, hydrologic, land use, and ecological issues of urban areas (Marsalek et al., 2007;Sun et al., 2015). Integrated Urban Water Management (IUWM) has been widely propagated as a contemporary global philosophy for urban water management by integrating rainwater and wastewater elements to augment the water security of a city without compromising the sustainability of vital ecosystems (Koop et al., 2022;WPP, 2016;GWP, 2013). ...
... Around the world, urbanization causes many changes to the hydrological cycle, including radiation ux, precipitation amount, water evaporation and evapotranspiration, and soil in ltration (Marsalek et al. 2014). China is currently experiencing rapid urbanization. ...
Urbanization causes many changes to the hydrological cycle, including radiation flux, precipitation amount, water evaporation and evapotranspiration, and soil infiltration. This study presents an adaptive strategy that aims to achieve efficient use of rainwater and realize sustainable development in the urban area by using desert sand. The permeable brick is made of desert sand, of which compressive strength is intensive, water permeability is high, and fabrication cost is low. Two water-permeable holes are included in the brick which is convenient for rainwater infiltration and maintenance of the permeable pavement. Experimental results show that the mean and maximum compressive strengths of the desert-sand bricks are 69.6 and 102.8 Mpa, which are 2.3 and 3.4 times of the strength required by the standard JC/T 945–2005, respectively. The fabrication cost of the water-permeable brick designed by the authors is only 12 US dollars/m ² , which is much lower than that of the sand-based permeable bricks that already exist in the market. Hence, the kind of permeable brick can render substantial economic benefits and ecological improvements.
... The urban soil properties are altered by urbanization, resulting in changes in water movement, soil permeability, hydraulic conductivity, and infiltration capacity [1,2]. As a result of the reduced soil capacity to infiltrate water due to urbanization, the hydrological cycle is affected significantly, resulting in changes in river and stream flow regimes [3][4][5]. Surface runoff increases with impermeable surface increment due to reduced soil infiltration capacity [6,7]. 1 3 difficult, especially in hilly terrain. Champatiray et al. [27] also found that plant root fractures, ground movement, and clay desiccation influenced the infiltration rate. ...
Climate change and irresponsible urbanization practices are anticipated to further exacerbate flood risk. The different soil types’ physical, chemical, and biological characteristics significantly impact surface water movement, porosity, permeability, and infiltration potential. Therefore, soil infiltration is perhaps the most challenging and crucial process to characterize on a field scale. Various methods have been developed to measure the infiltration rate empirically and theoretically. However, the relationship between different soil types and infiltration rates in Sarawak remains unknown as no previous study has been conducted. This study uses the Storm Water Management Model (SWMM) to evaluate the infiltration rates for five different soil types: clay, clay loam, loam, sandy loam, and sand. 30 samples of various types and soil depths were examined at intervals of 0.5 m, 1.0 m, 1.5 m, 2.0 m, 2.5 m, and 3 m. The study was carried out using a standardized slope of 0.7% and an impervious land of 25% with a catchment size of 2 acres. Extreme rainfall data on the 5th and 6th of December 2021 was input into the infiltration model. Results showed that the difference between initial and final water storage of all the investigated soil depths for clay, clay loam, loam, sandy loam, and sand was found to be 48.42 mm, 51.20 mm, 58.01 mm, 66.96 mm, and 115.54 mm, respectively. The findings demonstrated that clay has the lowest water storage capability, followed by clay loam, loam, and sandy loam. Sand could store a comparatively large amount of rainwater. In contrast, sand has the highest infiltration rate with 2.541 mm/h, followed by sandy loam with 1.835 mm/h, loam with 1.432 mm/h, clay loam with 1.039 mm/h. Clay has the lowest infiltration rate, with 0.852 mm/h. This research concluded that sandy soil could significantly reduce surface runoff and help reduce flood risk in urban regions.
... A pivotal element within the framework of Water Sensitive Urban Design (WSUD) involves gaining a comprehensive understanding of water flow, often referred to as the urban water cycle within a given area. The urban water cycle concept delves into the intricate examination of water balance and inventory within urban settings (Marsalek et al., 2006). Graphically, this urban water flow can be illustrated as depicted in Figure 1 below. ...
... Graphically, this urban water flow can be illustrated as depicted in Figure 1 below. (Marsalek et al., 2006) A profound comprehension of urban water flow within a spatial plan serves as the foundation for proposing the Water Sensitive Urban Design (WSUD) concept. WSUD embodies water management practices that are finely attuned to all water flows within the designated area (Kenway et al., 2011). ...
The development of Tegalluar area as a strategically planned integrated residential center, potentially serving as the new provincial government center for West Java, stands as a top priority for the Bandung Regency Government. To support this vision, the Regional Detailed Spatial Plan (RDTR) for Tegalluar Integrated Settlement Area and the Planning Area (BWP) of Bojongsoang have been formulated. Concurrently, the region has grappled with persistent water resource management challenges, marked by annual flooding during the rainy season and water shortages in the dry season. This research aims to comprehensively analyze the water flow cycle within the area and explore potential scenarios for water management in alignment with the RDTR. The research findings reveal that, in the development scenario, the water flow pattern remains largely unchanged, with limited efforts to harness rainfall or manage wastewater. Precipitation and surface water predominantly contribute to the water inflow in the research area. Furthermore, the provision of clean water heavily relies on external sources. Based on this water flow analysis, there exists an opportunity to implement water-sensitive urban design principles in the research area. This involves capturing rainwater through effective harvesting techniques and adopting wastewater reuse strategies, focusing on non-potable applications. Such measures can enhance water sustainability and mitigate the region's water-related challenges.
... The largest source of surface water pollution in Pakistan is municipal wastewater, which pollutes rivers, drains, and streams downstream of large cities with organic matter, suspended solids, and surfactants 18 . Industrial wastewater discharges are also high, polluting surface waters with heavy metals, oil products, phenols, and other hazardous substances 11,19 . ...
Water plays a key role in the economic growth of an agricultural country. Pakistan is a farming country that uses almost 90% of its water resources for agriculture. Khyber Pakhtunkhwa (KPK) province of Pakistan has extensive surface water resources. In addition to using groundwater resources for irrigation, large parts of its flat plains are irrigated with the Kabul River surface water. Due to large population growth and unregulated small/local scale industries in the region, surface water quality deteriorates with time, which affects people's health when polluted surface water is used for irrigation purposes. This research investigates the surface water quality of Kabul River's different tributaries. It identifies the most critical and vulnerable locations regarding water quality using the weightage-based identification method and distance-based iteration method, respectively. The Bara River exhibited the most critical location, surpassing the threshold values by a considerable margin in at least seven water quality parameters. The maximum seven critical values determined against the Bara River using the weightage-based method, i.e., 17.5, 5.95, 7.35, 27.65, 1.75, 0.35, and 10.45 for total alkalinity, sodium, total hardness, magnesium, total suspended solids, biological oxygen demand (BOD), and turbidity. The Khairabad station, where the Kabul River meets the Indus River, was identified as vulnerable due to elevated levels of total suspended solids, hardness, sulfate, sodium, and magnesium using distance-based methods. The locations, i.e. Adezai, Jindi, Pabbi, and Warsak Dam, appeared critical and vulnerable due to the prevalence of small-scale industries on their bank and high population densities. All the results are finally compared with the interpolated values over the entire region using Kriging interpolation to identify critical and vulnerable areas accurately. The results from the distance and weightage-based methods aligned with the physical reality on the ground further validate the results. The critical and vulnerable locations required immediate attention and preventive measures to address the deteriorating water quality parameters by installing monitoring stations and treatment plants to stop further contamination of the particular parameter.
... They also encompass manipulation of urban waters to ensure adequate water supplies, effective flood management and a means of effluent disposal. Such history will also affect the future of urban streams and groundwater; which in many places are subject to ongoing, and even accelerating, pressures of population growth, economic development and the expansion of the built environment (Marsalek et al., 2006). Coupled with such pressures are the effects of climate change which may substantially alter flood regimes, low flows and urban water quality. ...
Long-term records of combined stream flow and water chemistry can be an invaluable source of information on changes in the quantity and quality of water resources. To understand the effect of hydroclimate and water management on the heavily urbanized Panke catchment in Berlin, Germany, an extensive search, collation and digitization of historic data from various sources was undertaken. This integrated a unique 66-year spatially distributed record of stream water quality, a 21-year record of groundwater quality and a 31-year stream flow record. These data were analysed in the context of hydroclimatic variability, as well as the history and technological evolution of water resource management in the catchment. To contextualize the effect of droughts, "average" and wet years the Standard Precipitation Index (SPI) was applied. As upstream sites have been less regulated by human impacts, the flow regime is most sensitive to changes in hydroclimatic conditions, while downstream sites are more influenced by wastewater effluents, urban storm drains and inter-basin transfers for flood alleviation. However, at all sites, a general increase in maximum event discharge was observed until a recent drought, starting in 2018. In general, water quality in the catchment has gradually improved as a result of management change and increasingly effective wastewater treatment, though in some places legacy and/or contemporary urban and rural groundwater contamination may be affecting the stream. Hydroclimatic changes, particularly drought years can affect water quality classes, and alter the chemostatic/dynamic behaviour of catchment export patterns. These insights from the Panke catchment underline the importance of strategic adaptation and improvement of water treatment and water resource management in order to enhance the quality of urban water courses. It also demonstrates the importance of long-term integrated data sets.