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![Underground salt deposits and cavern fields in Europe [225].](profile/Herib-Blanco/publication/319417820/figure/fig5/AS:533736857260037@1504264191249/Underground-salt-deposits-and-cavern-fields-in-Europe-225.png)
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![Fig. 2. Five key properties of a secure energy system (Taken from [58]).](profile/Herib-Blanco/publication/319417820/figure/fig3/AS:533736857849856@1504264191122/Five-key-properties-of-a-secure-energy-system-Taken-from-58_Q320.jpg)
A review of more than 60 studies (plus more than 65 studies on P2G) on power and energy models based on simulation and optimization was done. Based on these, for power systems with up to 95% renewables, the electricity storage size is found to be below 1.5% of the annual demand (in energy terms). While for 100% renewables energy systems (power, hea...
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In order to meet the design and operation requirements of uncertain renewable energy accommodation in power grid, this paper establishes the energy model of pumped hydro storage station, including energy water head, energy storage and the relationship of conversion between power and energy. The energy water head which directly describes the potenti...
Citations
... Such mismatches between the supply and user sides make it imperative and necessary to match large storage capacity of energy with the peak and valley shifting of renewable resources and market variation. 3 Currently, energy storage technologies include pumped hydro, flywheel, 4 hydrogen, compressed gas (air), 5,6 and (flow) batteries. 7,8 As the earliest used and most mature energy storage system, pumped hydro energy storage has a long history, but is limited by geology and water resources. ...
The advancement of energy technology has led to a notable increase in the contribution from renewable energy sources to the global energy supply and consumption landscape. Nevertheless, although inexhaustible and...
... 4 Hydrogen, being a zero-emission fuel, is the ideal candidate to replace fossils-fuels. Being green and clean, storable, and transportable, it is foreseen to play an important role in solving energy and environmental issues, 5 as proven by the growing focus on hydrogen energy research. 6 Hydrogen-based energy storage systems are gaining momentum as a cost-effective solution for a large-scale renewable energy storage, transport and export. ...
... The optimal mix of LDES technologies is influenced by a range of technoeconomic and environmental factors. Studies by Blanco and Faaij [14]; Child, Bogdanov, and Breyer [15]; Chu, Baik, and Benson [16]; de Sisternes, Jenkins, and Botterud [17]; Freeman and Agar [18]; Hunter et al. [19]; Kim et al. [20]; Shan et al. [2]; Staadecker et al. [21]; and Ziegler et al. [22]; employ technoeconomic modeling to evaluate the costs, benefits, and ideal deployment of LDES technologies under different scenarios. These assessments consider key variables such as price, energy mix, weather variability, technology availability, and cost trajectories. ...
... As variable renewable energy (VRE) penetration grows, the inherent seasonal variability of wind and solar resources likely necessitates the development of storage solutions capable of managing these fluctuations over extended periods. Studies such as Albertus, Manser, and Litzelman [26]; Blanco and Faaij [14]; Child, Bogdanov, and Breyer [15]; Denholm et al. [28]; Dowling et al. [29]; and Weitemeyer et al. [33] highlight the possible role for LDES to shift substantial amounts of electricity across seasons, especially as VRE penetration approaches 100%. By enabling the storage of energy over longer periods, LDES helps to align periods of surplus generation with times of lower output, such as reduced solar generation in winter or lower wind production in summer. ...
Purpose of Review
Long Duration Energy Storage (LDES) is increasingly viewed as a potential resource for providing grid services that enhance the stability and flexibility of electricity systems. While some LDES services are integrated into existing market frameworks, traditional mechanisms may not fully account for their operational characteristics, potentially leading to undervaluation. Within this context, this paper reviews the literature and industry practices to assess potential grid services for LDES, evaluates existing compensation mechanisms, and identifies challenges to full market integration.
Recent Findings
We first review existing literature and identify key grid services unique to LDES, including enhancing grid resilience during extreme weather events, enabling long-term energy shifting, and providing flexible and firm energy in systems with limited dispatchable resources. We also review how LDES services are compensated in current market frameworks and the challenges associated with the full realization of LDES values. Additionally, we summarize market mechanisms for storage technologies across U.S. wholesale markets. We find that some markets are adjusting incentive structures, such as incorporating storage duration in capacity accreditation, to better align with system needs and LDES contributions to the grid. However, further refinements in capacity remuneration and dispatch timeframes may be needed for more effective realization of LDES value.
Summary
This review evaluates potential grid services for LDES, examines existing compensation mechanisms for LDES technologies, and identifies gaps between these mechanisms and LDES operational characteristics. The review concludes by outlining potential market enhancements for more effective LDES integration and articulating additional research needs to support its efficient participation in future power systems.
... As per the estimation, the earth receives a substantial amount of energy (1.9 × 10 8 TWh/yr) from the Sun, which is almost 1000 times greater than the global energy consumption (1.3 × 10 5 TWh/yr). 11 Hence, it is absolute to utilize this primary energy resource through several opportunistic approaches in order to develop sustainable energy grids such as green electricity using solar cells. 12 Distinctly, the use of solar energy for sustainable fuel production by harnessing the natural abundant renewable resources such as water, CO2, lignocellulosic biomass, and the earth's abundant natural gases can be a significant move towards the construction of a sustainable world ( Fig. 1a). ...
The current energy production technology is associated with incompetent and unsustainable global conditions like climate change, the greenhouse effect, etc. Therefore, the call for sustainable and renewable energy practices is...
... In each of these cases storage needs to be sufficient to be able to meet several or many weeks of demand, requiring many tens of terawatt-hours of storage with capital costs which may run into many tens, or even hundreds, of billions of (US) dollars. Similar conclusions for many other countries may be deduced from the results of [7][8][9]. Further discussion and references are given by [10]. ...
... . the condition (9) is satisfied for all i ∈ S − , j ∈ S + : 4. there are no pairs of stores i, j ∈ S satisfying (9) such that it is possible to improve the solution r(t) by (further) cross-charging from i to j. ...
Future “net-zero” electricity systems in which all or most generation is renewable may require very high volumes of storage in order to manage the associated variability in the generation-demand balance. The physical and economic characteristics of storage technologies are such that a mixture of technologies is likely to be required. This poses nontrivial problems in storage dimensioning and in real-time management. We develop the mathematics of optimal scheduling for system adequacy, and show that, to a good approximation, the problem to be solved at each successive point in time reduces to a linear programme with a particularly simple solution. We argue that approximately optimal scheduling may be achieved without the need for a running forecast of the future generation-demand balance. We consider an extended application to GB storage needs, where savings of tens of billions of pounds may be achieved, relative to the use of a single technology, and explain why similar savings may be expected elsewhere.
... With the growing consumption of fossil energy, which has caused some environmental problems [1]. Hydrogen as a clean energy source that can replace traditional energy sources has gradually been valued by countries around the world [2][3][4]. The delivery of hydrogen has been a technical barrier to achieve the large-scale application of hydrogen energy, and the existing delivery methods are inefficient, making it difficult to meet the growing demand for hydrogen energy [5]. ...
Hydrogen, as a clean energy source, has gradually become an important choice for the energy transformation in the world. Utilizing existing natural gas pipelines for hydrogen-blended transportation is one of the most economical and effective ways to achieve large-scale hydrogen transportation. However, hydrogen can easily penetrate into the pipe material during the hydrogen-blended transportation process, causing damage to the properties of the pipe. The heat-affected zone (HAZ) of the weld, being the weakest part of the pipeline, is highly sensitive to hydrogen embrittlement. The microstructure and properties of the grains in the heat-affected zone undergoes changes during the welding process. Therefore, this paper divides the HAZ of X80 welded pipes into three sub-HAZ, namely the coarse-grained HAZ, fine-grained HAZ, and intercritical HAZ, to study the hydrogen behavior. The results show that the degree of hydrogen damage in each sub-HAZ varies significantly at different strain rates. The coarse-grained HAZ has the highest hydrogen embrittlement sensitivity at low strain rates, while the intercritical HAZ experiences the greatest hydrogen damage at high strain rates. By combining the microstructural differences within each sub-HAZ, the plastic damage mechanism of hydrogen in each sub-HAZ is analyzed, with the aim of providing a scientific basis for the feasibility of using X80 welded pipes in hydrogen-blended transportation.
... Salt rocks mineral resources are plentiful and distributed in major industrial countries worldwide. For instance, in Europe, numerous salt mines have been in operation since the 1920s, and salt caverns formed after water-soluble mining have been utilized as energy storage facilities (Blanco and Faaij 2018), as shown in Fig. 1. ...
... Salt rocks have significant creep mechanical behaviour under the dual effects of geo-stress and time. Over extended periods of injection and production operations, salt rock creep can lead to accidents like cavity collapse, posing significant risks to the safety of gas storage reservoirs (He et al. 2023;AbuAisha et al. 2021;Blanco and Faaij 2018;Jin and Cristescu 1998). There are three phases to its usual creep curves: the decay phase, when the creep rate decreases, the steady-state phase, when the creep rate is relatively constant, and the accelerated phase, when the creep rate increases. ...
Creep behaviour in rocks is a typical mechanical property that is directly linked to the stability of underground engineering. The deformations and rate of rocks creep are not only influenced by time but also by the loading and unloading history. To more accurately predict creep mechanical behaviour of salt rocks, the rocks hardening is described by introducing a state variable. A new three-dimensional creep constitutive model of salt rocks was established to describe the loading and unloading history effect of the rheological properties. In this paper, salt rocks creep tests under various loading and unloading histories were conducted to investigate how different loading routes affect the creep behaviour of salt rocks. The effects of the model state variables were analysed through different indicators. An example verification was carried out with the results of plastic deformation tests performed at different loading paths. The findings indicated the creep rate of stepped loading and the stepped unloading under the same stress level were significantly affected by the loading history. The proposed constitutive model can accurately fit the creep test curves of different loading paths, indicate that it can provided a prediction of the historical effect of the creep behaviour of salt rocks. Different parameters affect the different phases of the creep curve. The parameter k primarily affects the overall shape of the creep curves. Parameters m and c primarily influence the steady-state creep length and creep rates, excluding the initial cycle.
... The rapid development of renewable energy sources motivated by the increasing serious energy crisis and environmental problems has resulted in new challenges in large-scale energy storage due to the intermittent nature of such sources. 1,2 Hydrogen generation through water electrolysis, a promising green solution for addressing the energy storage issue, has attracted significant attentions due to its advantages of high efficiency, low carbon emission, and high flexibility. 3−6 Among various water electrolysis techniques, alkaline water electrolysis (AWE) is recognized as an optimal choice for coupling with large-scale renewable energy sources due to its low cost (free of noble metal catalysts), simplicity, and high maturity. ...
Alkaline water electrolysis is considered an optimal technology for large-scale production of green hydrogen because of its economic and mature characteristics. The separator plays a crucial role in the alkaline water electrolysis process, as it fulfills the functions of gas separation and electrolyte transport. Nevertheless, the development of advanced separators with low ohmic resistance, high gas barrier ability, and good durability simultaneously remains a major challenge. Here, we first fabricated a series of high-performance composite separators with a porous bicontinuous structure by employing a nonsolvent-induced phase separation technique using a “weak solvent” (a solvent with a low affinity toward the membrane-forming polymer). The unique porous bicontinuous structure endows the membranes with high porosity, narrow pore size distribution with nanopores, and good hydrophilicity. As a result, the composite separator exhibits not only a low area resistance (0.13 Ω·cm²) but also a high bubble point pressure (5.1 bar). The composite separator also displays excellent durability in both long-term electrolysis and alkaline-aging tests.
... The PtX concept [17] has broadened its scope, extending from gases such as e-hydrogen [38][39][40] and e-methane [41,42] to encompass liquid e-fuels and e-chemicals [43] such as e-ammonia [44,45] and e-methanol [46,47], as well as application in heat [48,49], desalination [50,51], and various e-materials including e-steel [52,53], e-carbon fibers [54], e-silicon carbide [55], and e-graphene [56], e-CO 2 [57,58], and e-forests [59]. The envisioned abundance of affordable renewable electricity [60,61], understanding of PtX routes, and the idea of sector coupling [32,62,63], combined with the advancement of robust energy system models [64] comprehensively depicting the entire energy-industry system and incorporating all relevant PtX pathways, have facilitated novel structural perspectives on transition pathways towards sustainable energy systems [14], filling the previous research gap [25]. ...
... Typically, this concept encompasses processes that employ electricity across different sectors, such as heat, electromobility, industry, and the production of electricity-based fuels (e-fuels) [17,79]. These energy carriers encompass a range of options, including heat (heat pumps, electric heating) [48,49], e-fuels, such as e-hydrogen [39,40,80], e-methane [41,42], e-ammonia [43,44], e-methanol [46,47], electricity-based Fischer-Tropsch liquid (e-FTL) fuels [81,82], e-chemicals [83,84], as well as water (desalination) [50,51], negative CO 2 emissions [57,58], and forest resources [59]. The power in PtX can theoretically be generated from any source; however, if it does not come from a renewable source, the fundamental goal of shifting away from fossil fuels via PtX is compromised. ...
... There are various methods for producing hydrogen as an energy vector, but obtaining it through water electrolysis using renewable electricity may be the most sustainable [156]. Sustainable methane can be produced utilising CO 2 and renewable electricity via different processes [42,157]. Less regarded in energy system modelling is fuel storage for liquid fuels, such as ammonia (e-ammonia), methanol (e-methanol), and oil-based products (e-FTL fuels). ...
Flexibility options are essential components in highly renewable energy systems due to the inherent variability of renewable energy sources, such as solar photovoltaics and wind power. The adoption of renewable energy aligns with the United Nations Sustainable Development Goal 7, ensuring access to affordable, reliable, sustainable, and modern energy for all. This study investigates the impact of flexibility alternatives within the framework of 100% renewable energy systems through a systematic literature review to identify energy system analyses of at least 95% renewable energy supply for at least one sector in at least one scenario. 1067 articles from 1975 to 2023 were analysed to understand the functionality of flexibility options in highly renewable energy systems. The identified flexibility options include power-to-X, energy storage, demand response, power grids, and curtailment. The results indicate that within the field of 100% renewable energy systems, electricity-based solutions have emerged as the default. Various electricity-based fuels are used, with e-hydrogen and e-methane being the most widely discussed in 46% and 19% of articles, followed by Fischer-Tropsch and e-methanol with 3% of studies, respectively. Battery storage is covered by 60% of articles, followed by e-fuels options, and pumped hydro energy storage. Demand response was identified as the least included method. 46% of the articles highlight the role of transmission grids and 25% include curtailment. Early 100% renewable energy system analyses focused on flexibility in the power sector, whereas the shift of studies to a Power-to-X Economy has broadened research to flexibility options across the entire energy-industry system.
... While batteries are suitable for short-term energy storage, hydrogen storage systems provide reliable reserves for extended periods. This capability is particularly relevant in balancing energy supply and demand during low renewable output periods, ensuring grid stability and resilience [97]. ...
Hydrogen has emerged as a critical energy carrier for achieving global decarbonization and supporting a sustainable energy future. This review explores key advancements in hydrogen production technologies, including electrolysis, biomass gasification, and thermochemical processes, alongside innovations in storage methods like metal hydrides and liquid organic hydrogen carriers (LOHCs). Despite its promise, challenges such as high production costs, scalability issues, and safety concerns persist. Biomass gasification stands out for its dual benefits of waste management and carbon neutrality yet hurdles like feedstock variability and energy efficiency need further attention. This review also identifies opportunities for improvement, such as developing cost-effective catalysts and hybrid storage systems, while emphasizing future research on improving storage efficiency and tackling production bottlenecks. By addressing these challenges, hydrogen can play a central role in the global transition to cleaner energy systems.
