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![Underground salt deposits and cavern fields in Europe [225].](profile/Herib-Blanco/publication/319417820/figure/fig5/AS:533736857260037@1504264191249/Underground-salt-deposits-and-cavern-fields-in-Europe-225.png)
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![Fig. 2. Five key properties of a secure energy system (Taken from [58]).](profile/Herib-Blanco/publication/319417820/figure/fig3/AS:533736857849856@1504264191122/Five-key-properties-of-a-secure-energy-system-Taken-from-58_Q320.jpg)
A review of more than 60 studies (plus more than 65 studies on P2G) on power and energy models based on simulation and optimization was done. Based on these, for power systems with up to 95% renewables, the electricity storage size is found to be below 1.5% of the annual demand (in energy terms). While for 100% renewables energy systems (power, hea...
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In order to meet the design and operation requirements of uncertain renewable energy accommodation in power grid, this paper establishes the energy model of pumped hydro storage station, including energy water head, energy storage and the relationship of conversion between power and energy. The energy water head which directly describes the potenti...
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... According to BP's Statistic Review in 2020, the contribution of non-hydro renewable energy (such as wind and solar energy) in China notably increased from 1.9% of electric supply in 2009 to approximately 10% in 2019, while the percentage of renewable for power generation over the world increased by 1.4% during 2020 [4,5]. However, renewable energy will not be constantly available [6][7][8]. Instead, it is fluctuating and intermittent and have to be balanced before entering the electric grid [6,7]. Consequently, a fast, cheap and efficient method for energy storage is highly required [9][10][11]. ...
... However, renewable energy will not be constantly available [6][7][8]. Instead, it is fluctuating and intermittent and have to be balanced before entering the electric grid [6,7]. Consequently, a fast, cheap and efficient method for energy storage is highly required [9][10][11]. ...
In this work, hydrotalcite-derived new Ni-LDO catalysts were synthesized via sequenced precipitation, for CO2 catalytic reduction to synthetic natural gas (SNG) with high performances, while the traditional sample via coprecipitation was prepared and measured as the comparison. By regulating precipitation procedure, a significant performance enhancement was attained, in which the CO2 conversion rate per gram nickel was 7-times higher than that of the conventional comparison, at the temperature of 573 K and atmospheric pressure. In addition, the desired product selectivity is up to 99%. Structural characterizations proved that the as-synthesized catalysts showed layered meso-porous properties. An increasing Ni particle size and higher coverage of medium-strong basic sites was observed over the optimized catalyst sample prepared when part of Mg²⁺ and Al³⁺ were precipitated at first step. Catalyst surface nickel enrichment and promoted reducibility were also achieved when using sequenced precipitation. This work achievements provided a new route for surface nickel enrichment of much more active hydrotalcite-derived Ni-LDO layered catalysts for enhanced performances.
... to accommodate only 2% of the global annual natural gas production. This deficiency may result in an energy crisis whenever the supply chain is disturbed [6]. Moreover, the main overhead capital cost of the natural gas processing process comes from the purification process that targets the removal of acid gases and N 2 from natural gas [7]. ...
... In contrast to sVI semiclathrate, sI compounds have relatively lower melting points [78]. Similarly, SF 6 neutral molecule has been shown to form sII occupying the large cages of 5 12 6 4 [77]. On the other hand, some ionic clathrate hydrates show strong or weak basicity by encapsulated cationic guests while the host lattice charge is balanced by anions such as OH − , F − , and Br − . ...
In COP 26, the international community reaffirmed its ambitious targets to reduce carbon emission to mitigate climate change according to Paris Agreement. To achieve that target, a proper combination of energy efficiency and integration of renewables should be applied to ensure a smooth energy transition that balances the increasing demand and environmental commitments. Natural gas can work as a transition fuel between the polluting fossil fuels, and zero-emission renewables such as hydrogen. Carbon capture and sequestration is another important aspect that allows reducing already existing and future carbon emissions that arise from industrial processes. However, the storage and purification of natural gas, CO 2 and H 2 is still challenging and represents an overhead cost that slows down the energy transition process. This review discusses the use of ''zeolitic ice'' or clathrate hydrates as an environmentally benign material to help the energy transition process. Having structural topologies and properties that are identical to some zeolites and zeolitic clathrasils, those green materials showed unique properties that enable their utilization in different purposes related to the energy transition, such as gas separation, desalination, fuel cells, and others. The review especially focuses on their possible role to purify and safely store gases such as CH 4 , CO 2 , and H 2 , which are in the heart of energy transition. Amongst the objectives of the overview is to present different possible uses of clathrates, their benchmark against existing technologies, and the possibility to integrate them into current technologies with special focus on their application for energy storage and CCS.
... Since 1972 in the UK (Teesside in Yorkshire), the Sabic Petroleum company has been storing almost pure hydrogen (95% of H 2 , 3-4% of CO 2 ) in three shallow salt caverns (at a depth of ca. 400 m), each of which has a capacity of around 70,000 m 3 of hydrogen at 45 bar [19,32,51]. The caverns are operated at a constant pressure. ...
Hydrogen-based technologies are among the most promising solutions to fulfill the zero-emission scenario and ensure the energy independence of many countries. Hydrogen is considered a green energy carrier, which can be utilized in the energy, transport, and chemical sectors. However, efficient and safe large-scale hydrogen storage is still challenging. The most frequently used hydrogen storage solutions in industry, i.e., compression and liquefaction, are highly energy-consuming. Underground hydrogen storage is considered the most economical and safe option for large-scale utilization at various time scales. Among underground geological formations, salt caverns are the most promising for hydrogen storage, due to their suitable physicochemical and mechanical properties that ensure safe and efficient storage even at high pressures. In this paper, recent advances in underground storage with a particular emphasis on salt cavern utilization in Europe are presented. The initial experience in hydrogen storage in underground reservoirs was discussed, and the potential for worldwide commercialization of this technology was analyzed. In Poland, salt deposits from the north-west and central regions (e.g., Rogóźno, Damasławek, Łeba) are considered possible formations for hydrogen storage. The Gubin area is also promising, where 25 salt caverns with a total capacity of 1600 million Nm3 can be constructed.
... 6 Although solar electricity will surely play a key role in future energy infrastructure, there is a significant need to produce high energy density fuels and store them for prolonged time use. 7 Thus, conversion of solar energy into chemical fuels, especially via hydrogen (H 2 ) generation from earth-abundant water or high value-added chemical synthesis involving utilization of CO 2 , is highly desirable. Storing solar energy in the form of chemical bonds, similar to natural photosynthesis, is very attractive as it could be released upon demand. ...
Converting solar energy to fuels has attracted substantial interest over the past decades because it has the potential to sustainably meet the increasing global energy demand. However, achieving this potential requires significant technological advances. Polymer photoelectrodes are composed of earth-abundant elements, e.g. carbon, nitrogen, oxygen, hydrogen, which promise to be more economically sustainable than their inorganic counterparts. Furthermore, the electronic structure of polymer photoelectrodes can be more easily tuned to fit the solar spectrum than inorganic counterparts, promising a feasible practical application. As a fast-moving area, in particular, over the past ten years, we have witnessed an explosion of reports on polymer materials, including photoelectrodes, cocatalysts, device architectures, and fundamental understanding experimentally and theoretically, all of which have been detailed in this review. Furthermore, the prospects of this field are discussed to highlight the future development of polymer photoelectrodes.
... Among the energy storage methods, chemical energy storage, which converts renewable power into sustainable fuels that include hydrogen and hydrogen derivatives, has gained increasing interest [2]. Supported by existing chemical transportation networks, chemical energy storage is a feasible approach for the large-scale and long-term use and management of RESs [3]. However, the storage and transportation of hydrogen remain as a bottleneck for the development of hydrogen energy [4]. ...
Power-to-methane (PtM) coupled with renewables requires an energy buffer to ensure a steady and flexible operation. Liquid CO2 energy storage (LCES) is an emerging energy storage concept with considerable round-trip efficiency (53.5%) and energy density (47.6 kWh/m³) and can be used as both an energy and material (i.e., CO2) buffer in the PtM process. Integration of LCES with the PtM process realizes co-production of methane and electricity, supports peak shaving of the power grid, and enhances profitability via the sale of electricity at peak hours. This study aims to design, optimize, and comprehensively evaluate the techno-economic performance of the PtM-LCES process using a renewable power mix of solar and wind. A process scheduling model is formulated to understand the impacts of storage sizing and power allocation on the process performance. Then, artificial neural network-based surrogate optimization was performed to establish a cost-optimal design. Investigation at Kramer Junction, California, found that the production cost of methane was 161.6 €/MWh with an efficiency of 76.2% and a renewables penetration of 78.7%. This cost could be reduced by improving LCES's performance and considering electricity price arbitrage in areas with high electricity prices. The electricity price arbitrage and improvement of LCES's performance could lower the cost to 83.8 and ∼60 €/MWh, respectively. Moreover, zero or negative carbon emissions can be achieved if the renewables penetration can be increased to 91.5%. Results indicate that the PtM-LCES process is both energy efficient and economically viable, through which renewable methane can be cost-competitive with fossil natural gas.
... The set of studies mentioned are partly based on the expectation that energy systems with a high penetration of variable renewable energy sources (RES) will benefit from PtG as a promising long-term storage option to complement a wider set of short-term and long-term flexibility strategies [15,16]. In this regard, the literature has suggested that a seasonal storage business model could be suitable for PtG technologies coupled with catalytic methanation under the hypothesis that plant operators can access the grid balancing market to grant continuous operation of methanation sub-systems [17]. ...
Biomethanation of biomass-derived syngas represents a promising bioenergy conversion technology that can be operated within integrated plants to deliver ancillary services such as carbon capture and storage (CCS), seasonal energy storage and fuel densification. In the present study, we developed a set of techno-economic process models considering syngas biomethanation as a core unit complemented by Power-to-Gas (PtG), pure oxygen compression, CCS, and biomethane liquefaction. Four different plant configurations and five operating modes with biomass inputs ranging between 8.4 and 60.2 MW were investigated overall, indicating biomethane yields between 0.16 and 0.48 m³ kg⁻¹ (dry basis). An energy analysis demonstrated how intensive PtG operation delivers substantially higher biomethane cold gas efficiencies (44.4%) compared to operating modes without electrolysis (30%–34.8%). In fact, a small-scale PtG-biomethanation configuration (S-EL) delivers the lowest biomethane minimum selling price (MSP) of 1.63 € m⁻³. Under existing biomethane subsidies in Denmark and Italy, S-EL would achieve profitability only under stored electricity costs equivalent to approximately 50% of the current levelized cost of renewable electricity generation in the two countries, combined with maximum biomass costs of 50 and 30 € t⁻¹, respectively. All other configurations suffer from high costs and efficiency limitations and would require subsidies equivalent to 126%–348% of the current natural gas consumer price to reach profitability. The study provides evidence to support an intensification of targeted policies that support multi-service plants, and it highlights the need for access to low electricity prices as well as the urgency for low-cost gasification technologies.
... The storage of renewable energy in the form of chemicals can also address the intermittency and unbalanced spatiotemporal distribution of RES. Supported by the current chemical transportation network, chemical energy storage has become a promising approach for the large-scale and long-term use and management of RES in a 100% renewable energy system [4]. ...
Green ammonia produced via the Power-to-Ammonia (PtA) process has the great potential to decarbonize the energy supply. The current challenge of green ammonia is the unacceptable cost compared to that produced from fossil energy, which arises owing to the low energy efficiency caused by fluctuations in renewable power and high investment costs. This study aims to tackle these issues by integrating liquid air energy storage (LAES) with the PtA process to manage uncertainties from both sides of power supply and demand, thus forming an innovative ammonia and electricity co-production system to supply power flexibly at peak hours and ensure ammonia production at a constant load. The continuous PtA process enables the use of high-temperature electrolysis, and system thermal integration results in the highest production efficiency of 83%. Flexible operation is achieved by adsorbing dispatchable electricity from the grid and outputting peak electricity for power load shifting, therefore, cost reduction can be achieved via electricity arbitrage. A system scheduling model is formulated to understand the impacts of storage sizing and power allocation on the renewables penetration, grid power output ratio, and the cost of ammonia production. An artificial neural network-based surrogate optimization was performed to establish a cost-optimal design. Investigation at the location of Kramer Junction revealed that the cost of ammonia production can be lowered to 360.74 €/tonne based on a system renewables penetration of 77.6% and grid power output ratio of 43.9%. Moreover, the cost could be further reduced by using an external thermal energy coupled LAES in areas with high electricity prices. These findings clearly demonstrate that the proposed co-production system is an economically viable option for short-term electricity and long-term ammonia hybrid energy storage.
... Finally, storage systems and their role in highly decarbonized electricity systems require further investigation and, hence, policymakers should promote and support additional research in this field, since storage will be needed to support electricity systems with high RE shares [83,88]. A key area to explore is the need for storage in scenarios that combine extensive electrification with fully renewable electricity production, such as in [49,67], as those electricity systems might benefit most from storage as a flexibility option to stabilize the electricity grid. ...
Policymakers currently face the challenge of supporting a suitable technology mix to decarbonize electricity systems. Due to multiple and interdependent technologies and sectors, as well as opposing objectives such as minimizing cost and reducing emissions, energy system models are used to develop optimal transition pathways towards decarbonized electricity systems. Research in this domain has increased in recent years and multiple studies have used energy system modeling (ESM) to shed light on possible transition pathways for national electricity systems. However, in many cases, the large number of model-based studies makes it difficult for policymakers to navigate study results and condense diverging pathways into a coherent picture. We conduct an in-depth review of ESM publications covering Switzerland, Germany, France, and Italy, and analyze the main trends regarding electricity generation mixes, key supply and storage technology trends, and the role of demand developments. Our findings show that diverging solutions are proposed regarding technology mixes in 2030 and 2050, not all of which meet current climate targets. Additionally, our analysis suggests that natural gas, solar, and wind will continue to be key actors in the electricity system transition, whereas the role of storage remains opaque and calls for clearer policy support. We conclude that due to diverging targets and the current energy landscape in each country considered, different options appear as prominent transition pathways, meaning that individual sets of policies are necessary for each case. Nonetheless, international collaborations will be essential to ensure a swift electricity system transition by 2050.
... An opportunity is given by power-to-gas technologies which can be supported by an existing and widespread infrastructure, such as the natural gas grid, acting as storage and transport device. In this respect, the utilization of existing apparatus may be of great help in minimizing the economic, environmental, and social costs of both individuals and the entire community [10]. The injection of hydrogen or syngas (from RES using power-to-gas units) into the actual gas grid is a topic of very high interest as proven by the vast number of works available in the recent scientific literature. ...
The temporal and geographical availability of renewable energy sources is highly variable, which imposes the importance of correct choices for energy storage and energy transport systems. This paper presents a smart strategy to utilize the natural gas distribution grid to transport and store the hydrogen. The goal is twofold: evaluating the capacity limits of the grid to accommodate “green hydrogen” for preset increasing shares of renewable energy sources (RESs) and determining at the same time the optimal mix of wind, photovoltaic (PV), biomethane and power-to-gas systems that minimizes the investment and operation costs. To this end, the energy supply system of an entire country is modelled and optimized considering the real characteristics and pressure levels of the gas grid, which is assumed to be the only storage mechanism of green hydrogen. The operational concept is to fill up the gas grid with hydrogen during the day and with natural gas during the night while always consuming the natural gas-hydrogen blend. Green hydrogen is generated by electrolysers powered by PVs, wind turbines and biomethane power systems. Results of the optimizations showed that: i) as long as the share of RES does not exceed 20%, there is no need to use the gas grid as RES storage system, ii) from 20 to 50% of RES share the gas grid receives the surplus of electricity in the peaks that would be necessary to “complete” the dispatchability of RES electricity, iii) above 50%, the excess of electricity in the peaks has to be used to generate the thermal energy required by the consumers. The gas grid can be used as unique renewable energy carrier and storage system up to 65% of RES share.
... Because of their low cost, mature manufacturing technology, and recyclability, lead-acid batteries have been extensively used for energy storage systems, uninterrupted power supply, hybrid electric vehicles, and telecommunications [1][2][3][4]. Although they have high versatility and flexible performance, the development of lead-acid batteries is considerably restricted by low energy density and short cycle life under the deep charge-discharge conditions [5,6]. ...
During deep charge-discharge cycling of lead-acid batteries, the compact PbSO4 layer on the negative electrode surface blocks the ion transport channels, limiting the mass transfer process. In this study, to enhance the electrochemical characteristics of lead-acid batteries, thorn-like and dendrite PbSO4 with a high aspect ratio were prepared and used as negative electrode material. During the formation process, thorn-like and dendrite PbSO4 increased the pore diameter and the total pore volume of the negative electrode. For the charge-discharge process, this provided enhanced ion transport channels, which improved the utilization rate of the negative active material (NAM) and rate performance of batteries. Under a current density of 100 mA g⁻¹ and 100% depth of discharge (DOD), the specific discharge capacity of thorn-like and dendrite PbSO4 batteries reached 110 mAh g⁻¹, and the batteries still maintained >70% of the maximum specific capacity after 1200 cycles. When the capacity decayed to 80% of the maximum specific capacity, the cycle life of thorn-like and dendrite PbSO4 batteries was 64% higher than that of the nearly spherical PbSO4 batteries. Owing to the thorn-like and dendrite PbSO4 significantly changing the pore structure of the electrode and enhancing the mass transfer process, the irreversible sulfation of the negative electrode was inhibited, and the cycle life of the lead-acid battery effectively extended.
