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The United States and other developed countries currently and historically have transferred considerable resources overseas to further their foreign policy objectives and to purchase oil and natural gas. These transfers are comparable in magnitude to estimates of the scale of the economic effort that would be required to create a world-wide energy...
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... At present, due to the high cost of collecting sustainable resources and the high technical and infrastructure requirements for sustainable energy-driven seawater desalination systems, in-depth development and research is a necessary process to reduce the cost of sustainable energy. It is expected that the cost of sustainable energy will become equal to the cost of traditional fossil fuels over the next 30 years [217,218]. ...
Seawater desalination is one of the most widely used technologies for freshwater production; however, its high energy consumption remains a pressing global challenge. Both the development and utilization of sustainable energy sources are anticipated to mitigate the energy shortages associated with seawater desalination while also effectively addressing the environmental issues linked to fossil fuel usage. This study provides a comprehensive overview of the classification and evolution of traditional desalination technologies, emphasizing the advancements, progress, and challenges associated with integrating various sustainable energy sources into the desalination process. Then, the cost, efficiency, and energy consumption of desalination systems driven by sustainable energy are discussed, and it is found that even the most widely used reverse osmosis (RO) technology driven by fossil fuels has CO2 emissions of 0.3–1.7 kgCO2/m3 and the lowest cost of desalinated water as high as 0.01 USD/m3, suggesting the necessity and urgency of applying sustainable energy. A comparison of different seawater desalination systems driven by different sustainable energy sources is also carried out. The results reveal that although the seawater desalination system driven by sustainable energy has a lower efficiency and a higher cost than the traditional system, it has more potential from the perspective of environmental protection and sustainable development. Furthermore, the efficiency and cost of desalination technology driven by a single sustainable energy source is lower than that driven by multi-sustainable energy sources, while the efficiency of desalination systems driven by multi-sustainable energy is lower than that driven by hybrid energy, and its cost is higher than that of desalination systems driven by hybrid energy. Considering factors such as cost, efficiency, consumption, economic scale, and environmental impact, the integration of various seawater desalination technologies and various energy sources is still the most effective strategy to solve water shortage, the energy crisis, and environmental pollution at present and in the future.
... The electricity generated will be sold by suppliers to stockholders. The energy demand will be the same, but the source of this energy will be net-zero carbon [49,50]. The mountain tops of the Al-Baha region should also be exploited for wind energy and generate electricity due to the high demand for wind energy on top of mountains and Al-Aqiq town. ...
This paper presents and illustrates planned urban projects in the Al-Baha region with the potential to contribute to developing a sustainable local environment and economy in alignment with Saudi Arabia’s 2030 national vision and future needs. Al-Baha is characterized by a wealth of renewable energy, a cooler environment relative to many other Saudi regions, as well as multiple heritage villages and wildlife habitats set amid mountainous topography. The approach used here is the analytical hierarchy process (AHP), which employs an expert consultation analysis to identify the best future projects for the Al-Baha region. About 52 experts were invited, each selected according to specific criteria to include decision-makers, developers, and academics in the fields of the built environment, engineering, and investment. The findings of the study are evaluated and culminate in suggestions for future projects in the tourism; renewable energy; agriculture and farming; health and education; and wildlife and forest protection sectors. It has been found that the most important future projects are those related to the tourism and agricultural and farming sectors. The other projects proposed are unique to the Al-Baha region due to its location and traditions. The study concludes with key recommendations for developers and decision-makers.
... Examples; utility-scale photovoltaic can be connected to smart grid networks, and PV can also be adapted to small-scale, off-grid applications such as stand-alone PV power systems on rooftops . According to a comprehensive life cycle assessment on PV technologies, emissions from the photovoltaic industry are very small as compared to the emissions originating from the fossil-fuel-based plants (DeCanio & Fremstad, 2011;Tisza, 2014). Utility-size solar PV technology has promising potential for deployment in vast land areas where the amount of solar irradiation per year is very high (Fu & Rich, 1999;Ruiz-Arias et al., 2009). ...
Rapid exhaustion of fossil fuels followed by inherent climatic effects arising out of their use has forced the world to search for alternative energy sources. So, almost all nations including developing countries tend to harness renewable energies for the benefit of mankind. One such source is the sun offering clean and environment-friendly energy. Solar energy can be changed into electricity and as well combined with other energies. This study is intended to model solar energy potential, delineate suitable grid-connected solar photovoltaic (PV) farms, and calculate their power generating capacity in the East Shewa Zone of Ethiopia using GIS-based approach combined with analytical hierarchical process. Results showed that 1129 km2 of area in the zone is ideal for the development of large PV solar farms. The findings suggest that as much as 2.2 TW of solar PV electric power can be fed to the grid system. The output of this study is thus useful to the government agencies and entrepreneurs engaged in the exploitation, production and promotion of non-conventional solar energy source in the region.
... The challenge remains to reduce the levelized cost of solar thermal technology. According to DeCanio and Fremstad [332], solar costs considerably reduces over time if significant research input is put in this area. ...
The utilization of seawater for drinking purposes is limited by the high specific energy consumption (SEC) (kW-h/m³) of present desalination technologies; both thermal and membrane-based. This is in turn exasperated by high water production costs, adding up to the water scarcity around the globe. Most technologies are already working near their thermodynamic limit, while posing challenges in further SEC reductions. Understanding the current energy status and energy breakdowns of leading desalination technologies will further help in realizing limitations and boundaries imposed while working for improved system performances. This paper comprehensively reviews the energy requirements and potential research areas for reduced SEC of various thermal, membrane-based and emerging desalination technologies. For thermal desalination processes, which consume a large chunk of energy for heating, renewable energy sources can be a viable option for bringing down the energy requirements. Hence, this review also focuses on the potential of desalination-renewable energy integrations. The review extends beyond conventional energy reduction possibilities to utilizing novel, advanced membranes and innovative techniques for energy offsets. The future of desalination for optimized energy requirements is projected to include ultra-high permeability membranes, fouling resistant membranes, hybrid systems, and renewable-energy driven desalination.
... However, a further development and research may succeed in reducing the renewable energy cost in the near future. The approximate renewable energy cost is about (0.1-0.2 USD/kWh) but this price is expected to be about (0.05 USD/kWh) within the next 20 years which may be equivalent to the conventional energy cost [29,30]. Table 6 shows the recent typical cost to the renewable energy desalination systems [31]. ...
Water and energy are indispensable entities for any flourishing life and civilization. The water and energy scarcities have emerged due to the dramatic growth in the population, standards of living, and the rapid development of the agricultural and industrial sectors. Desalination seems to be one of the most promising solutions to the water problem; however, it is an intensive energy process. The integration of the renewable energy into water desalination systems has become increasingly attractive due to the growing demand for the water and energy, and the reduction of the contributions to the carbon footprint. The intensive investigations on the conventional desalination systems, especially in the oil-rich countries have somewhat overshadowed the progress and implementation of the renewable energy desalination (RED) systems. The economic performance evaluation of the RED systems and its comparison with conventional systems is not conclusive due to many varying factors related to the level of technology, the source of energy availability, and the government subsidy. The small RED plants have a high capital cost, low efficiency and productivity which make RED systems uncompetitive with the conventional ones. However, the selection of the small RED plants for the remote arid areas with small water demands is viable due to the elimination of the high cost of the water transportation, and the connection to the electricity grid. The purpose of this paper is to review the technology, energy, and cost of the recent available desalination systems and their potential to be integrated with the renewable energy resources. This review suggests that the solar still distillation (SD) system, which is simply a natural evaporation-condensation process, is the most practical renewable desalination technique to be used in the remote arid areas; however, a further research is required to enhance their performance and to increase the productivities of these systems.
... Estimates of Levelized Cost ($/MWh) of Electricity by Source (adapted from DeCanio and Fremstad[25] and Goosen et al[1]. ...
The use of alternative energy sources is essential to meet the growing demand for water desalination. Up till now, the expansion of renewable energy sources to run desalination processes at a larger scale is hampered by technical, economic, regulatory and environmental challenges. While medium-scale renewable energy driven desalination plants have been installed worldwide, many are connected to the electrical grid to assure a continuous energy supply for stable operation. This critical review paper focusses on integrated approaches in using renewable energy such as solar and geothermal technologies for water desalination. Innovative and sustainable desalination processes which are suitable for integrated renewable energy systems are also presented, along with the benefits of these technologies and their limitations. The market potential, environmental concerns, regulatory & socio-economic factors are likewise evaluated as well as the need for accelerated development of renewable energy-driven desalination technologies.
... As China and India's growth, powered in part by coal, continues faster than global growth, emissions intensity reductions may be swamped (42,65). The most hopeful scenario may be for developing countries to leapfrog western development, and to develop energy, socioeconomic, and infrastructural pathways that avoid unnecessary externalities (160,177,181). The aim should be for equitable consumption within overall sustainable levels (81). ...
Consumption, although often considered an individual choice, is deeply ingrained in behaviors, cultures, and institutions, and is driven and supported by corporate and government practices. Consumption is also at the heart of many of our most critical ecological, health, and social problems. What is referred to broadly as sustainable consumption has primarily focused on making consumption more efficient and gradually decoupling it from energy and resource use. We argue for the need to focus sustainable consumption initiatives on the key impact areas of consumption-transport, housing, energy use, and food-and at deeper levels of system change. To meet the scale of the sustainability challenges we face, interventions and policies must move from relative decoupling via technological improvements, to strategies to change the behavior of individual consumers, to broader initiatives to change systems of production and consumption. We seek to connect these emerging literatures on behavior change, structural interventions, and sustainability transitions to arrive at integrated frameworks for learning, iteration, and scaling of sustainability innovations. We sketch the outlines of research and practice that offer potentials for system changes for truly sustainable consumption.
... Also in this scenario, the awareness of low carbon emissions will increase, and carbon taxes will be imposed to further share the emission responsibilities embodied in imported products. Developed countries will further share responsibilities to create a world-wide energy system with zero net carbon emissions by exporting their low-carbon technologies and economic investment, for example, through the Clean Development Mechanism (CDM) (Haites, 2009;Stonchniol, 2009;Lewis, 2010;DeCanio and Fremstad, 2011). The efficiencies of manufacturing and transportation will be improved (Mallidis et al., 2012), and energy consumption mix will be changed by replacing cheap fossil fuel with renewables (Gustavsson et al., 2007;Geurs et al., 2011;Sterner and Damon, 2011). ...
Connections between the Atlantic and Pacific oceans are vital for international trade. Since 1914, the Panama Canal has provided ships with a direct interoceanic canal for crossing the Atlantic and Pacific oceans. The geographical advantage of the Panama Canal allows it to enjoy an exclusive position in international seaborne trade. Passage demand through the canal has increased continuously since its opening, with about 12,000 vessels travelling through it in 2013. However, the Panama Canal’s monopoly in interoceanic canal operations may soon come to an end. In 2012, a memorandum of understanding was signed between the Nicaraguan Government and a Chinese investor to construct the Nicaragua Canal, which will be built about 400 nautical miles from the Panama Canal. It is expected that the Nicaragua Canal will be operational by 2020. The proposed canal will not only provide an alternative route for vessels to pass between the Atlantic and Pacific oceans, but will also trigger dynamic changes in seaborne trade patterns. To assess the long-term benefits of the proposed canal, we use a scenario planning method in this study to provide a framework for constructing several scenarios for 2030, 10 years after the anticipated construction of the canal. To develop the scenarios, we consider three macroscale drivers, namely politics, economics, and environment, and the causal relationships between them. Combinations of pairs of drivers are used to generate dominant scenarios to anticipate the role of the Nicaragua Canal with respect to future international trade. The analysis presented in this study will provide transport geographers and other major stakeholders with alternative mindsets into the future spatial changes in and development of maritime transport.
... The challenge here is to significantly reduce the levelized cost of solar thermal technologies to make it more competitive. DeCanio and Fremstad [40] noted that there is every expectation that solar costs will decrease over time with research and experience, and a number of efforts to estimate the rate of decline have appeared in the literature. ...
... The cells used in Table 2 Estimates of levelized cost (US$/MWh) of electricity by source. Adapted from [13,40]. high concentration CPV systems are referred to as multi-junction or III-V cells. ...
... The current annual global energy consumption of 13 Terrawatts [1] is projected to double by 2050 due to the increase in global population and standard of living [2]. While 81% of the current power need is supplied from burning fossil fuels [3], a shift towards renewable energy supplies is urgently needed in order to sustain global economic growth and to mitigate the climate change caused by a rapid rise of the atmospheric carbon dioxide level. While efficient solar power generation provides a long-term, sustainable solution to the global energy need, nuclear power remains the only mature, large-scale, non-intermittent, and carbon-neutral means to meet this growing energy demand in the coming decades (and centuries). ...
