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![Typical cargos and their stowage factor [26].](publication/364395607/figure/fig2/AS:11431281090978699@1666271952048/Typical-cargos-and-their-stowage-factor-26.png)
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![Figure 4. Typical cargos and their stowage factor [26].](publication/364395607/figure/fig2/AS:11431281090978699@1666271952048/Typical-cargos-and-their-stowage-factor-26_Q320.jpg)
Fuel transition can decarbonize shipping and help meet IMO 2050 goals. In this paper, HFO with CCS, LNG with CCS, bio-methanol, biodiesel, hydrogen, ammonia, and electricity were studied using empirical ship design models from a fleet-level perspective and at the Tank-To-Wake level, to assist operators, technology developers, and policy makers. The...
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... cargoes have different densities and, hence, stowage factors. Figure 4 shows the type of cargo that are typically transported by sea and the usual range of cargo stowage factors. Vessels carrying low-density cargo require larger cargo space and, hence, fuels with high volumetric density (kJ/m 3 ) have a greater advantage as they compete less with cargo storage. ...
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The shipping industry faces a large challenge as it needs to significantly lower the amounts of Green House Gas emissions. Traditionally, reducing the fuel consumption for ships has been achieved during the design stage and, after building a ship, through optimisation of ship operations. In recent years, ship efficiency improvements using Machine L...
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... In response to these concerns, the maritime industry has been engaged in the investigation of a range of strategies aimed at the reduction of its greenhouse gas emissions. In their study, Law et al. [3] provide a comprehensive overview of the various measures that can be employed to reduce fuel consumption and, consequently, emissions in the shipping sector. One approach involves the adoption of more energy-efficient technologies, such as combustion engines with improved injector design or novel energy converters with a higher overall efficiency, e.g., solid oxide fuel cells [4][5][6][7]. ...
... Nevertheless, the most significant means of reducing emissions resulting from ship operations is the utilization of alternative fuels, including hydrogen and its derivatives, such as ammonia or green methanol [3,9]. In previous years, suppliers have developed combustion engines that are capable of burning alternative fuels. ...
The shipping industry plays a crucial role in global trade, but it also contributes significantly to environmental pollution, particularly in regard to carbon emissions. The Carbon Intensity Indicator (CII) was introduced with the objective of reducing emissions in the shipping sector. The lack of familiarity with the carbon performance is a common issue among vessel operator. To address this aspect, the development of methods that can accurately predict the CII for ships is of paramount importance. This paper presents a novel and simplified approach to predicting the CII for ships, which makes use of data-driven modelling techniques. The proposed method considers a restricted set of parameters, including operational data (draft and speed) and environmental conditions, such as wind speed and direction, to provide an accurate prediction of the CII factor. This approach extends the state of research by applying Deep Neural Networks (DNNs) to provide an accurate CII prediction with a deviation of less than 6% over a considered time frame consisting of different operating states (cruising and maneuvering mode). The result is achieved by using a limited amount of training data, which enables ship owners to obtain a rapid estimation of their yearly rating prior to receiving the annual CII evaluation.
... These corridors, conceived in the Clydebank Declaration at COP26, are designated shipping routes where the technological, economic, and regulatory potential for zero-emission shipping is activated through collaborative efforts between public and private entities. They can help overcome energy and technology barriers on a manageable scale [8][9][10][11]. The IMO defines three types of green shipping corridors: single point, point-to-point, and network. This paper focuses on prioritizing the criteria for establishing a point-to-point green shipping corridor between the Port of Sines (Portugal) and the Port of Luanda (Angola). ...
... These comparisons involved evaluating each criterion at the same level against every criterion from the preceding (upper) level. The experts' linguistic preferences were then translated into triangular fuzzy numbers, as shown in Table 2. (3,4,5), (5,6,7), (7,8,9) ...
As port authorities and cargo operators seek strategies to reduce carbon emissions while ensuring operational efficiency, some are turning to the concept of green corridors. These solutions aim to establish formalized partnerships among ports, carriers, shippers, and countries. During the process, the stakeholders must consider four priority areas (alternative fuels, bunkering infrastructure, vessel decarbonization pathways, and cargo demand dynamics) from seven angles (environmental, economic, infrastructure, regulatory, operational, technological, and social). This study explores the prioritization of these criteria for establishing a green maritime corridor between two major ports in Portugal and Angola, which would be a significant step toward promoting sustainable global trade. Utilizing the fuzzy AHP, this research analyzes all these factors and their associated sub-criteria derived from a comprehensive literature review and consultations with stakeholders from the Ports of Sines and Luanda. The findings show the dominance of environmental compatibility and economic viability, while social acceptance shows the lowest score. This framework guides the decision-making process for developing a sustainable shipping corridor. The results offer valuable insights for policymakers which can guide them in fostering resilient maritime transport routes, accelerating the adoption of decarbonization strategies and playing a critical role in achieving the IMO’s zero-emission targets by 2050.
... In 2023, the International Maritime Organization (IMO) agreed on the '2023 IMO GHG Strategy', with ambitions to decarbonise the shipping industry by or around 2050 [3]. To accomplish this goal, the maritime industry will need to adopt new marine fuels, with zero or near-zero lifecycle GHG emissions [4]. It remains to be seen how the adoption dynamics for these new fuels will unfold. ...
The maritime shipping sector needs to transition towards a low- or zero-emission future to align with the 1.5 °C temperature goal and the recently adopted and revised greenhouse gas (GHG) strategy at the International Maritime Organization (IMO). A significant research gap exists in understanding how socio-economic and socio-political processes can lead to the adoption of alternative marine fuels that will be essential in meeting the aforementioned goals. The aim of this paper is to use a case study of an existing transition to understand how diffusion takes place, specifically how the adoption of liquified natural gas (LNG) in Norway has unfolded and what lessons can be learnt from this process. To answer this question, a combination of semi-structured interviews with key maritime stakeholders and documentary evidence was collected covering the period from 1985 to 2015. The collected data were analysed through a content analysis approach applying the multilevel perspective (MLP) as a heuristic. The qualitative results paint an interesting picture of the changing attitudes towards LNG as a marine fuel in Norway. In the early years, the adoption of LNG was primarily driven by air pollution and political considerations of using Norwegian natural gas, which over time, evolved into a more focused maritime paradigm painted through the lens of the Norwegian maritime industry under wider regulatory developments such as emission control areas (ECAs). By the 2010s, these drivers were superseded by GHG considerations such as methane slip concerns and a less favourable natural gas market leading to a slowdown of LNG adoption. These findings provide valuable insights for understanding future adoption dynamics of alternative zero-emission fuels, particularly in relation to the role of strong technology champions, institutional modification requirements, and starting conditions for a transition.
... According to the IMO greenhouse gas (GHG) study in 2020, the total international shipping industry emissions represented 1056 million tonnes of CO 2 equivalent and were responsible for 2.89% of the global anthropogenic emissions (IMO, 2020). These emissions are expected to increase by up to 50% to 1500 million tonnes of GHG emissions in the coming years due to the rise in seaborne trade activities (Law et al., 2022). Moreover, the World Economic Forum states that shipping emissions are projected to grow by up to 250% by 2050 if no actions are taken (WEF, 2019). ...
... about the possible fuels and technologies available to achieve zero emissions by 2050. Other related studies on decarbonisation are covered byForetich et al. (2021),Van Leeuwen and Monios (2022),Psaraftis and Zis (2022),Law et al. (2022),Lindstad et al. (2022), and institutional research by the World Bank and ProBlue (2021), IRENA 2021 (International Renewable Energy Agency), UMAS and the Getting to Zero Coalition (2021), and the U.S. National Blueprint for Transportation Decarbonisation of the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) of the United States (2023). However, it is important to mention that there is no clear path regarding a dominant alternative fuel to achieve zero decarbonisation in the shipping industry, industry participants are constantly experimenting and piloting different choices. ...
Corn is the second most important component of the grain segment after soybeans, averaging close to 35.7% of total grain traffic through the Panama Canal. The objective of this paper is to attempt to fit a preliminary general demand model for corn traffic through the Panama Canal using Ordinary Least Square (OLS). The corn traffic estimated is the U.S. Gulf and East Coast to East Asia, particularly China, Japan, South Korea, and Taiwan, and the research hypothesized the possible variables that may explain the downward trend inthe movements of corn in this route between October 2004 to September 2022. Canal costs, U.S. Gulf freight rates, U.S. Gulf and Pacific Northwest grains inspections and the energy index were the most important explanatory variables in the study. This research also discusses the future of corn traffic through the waterway in terms of alternative sources, routes, and possible demand for corn, and explores the decarbonization process impacting the Panama Canal and the U.S. corn supply chain. For the literature review, the research is leveraging on previous estimation of demand functions for grains and the decarbonization studies related to the maritime industry, and examine papers related to Panama Canal shipping demand, thus closing the gap on the literature about transportation demand through the waterway.
... The recent MEPC 80 meeting marked a noteworthy step forward with the highlights on OCCS technologies for shipping decarbonisation [2,3]. Despite its expected efficacy in reducing carbon emissions and superior energy efficiency and cost-effectiveness compared to other alternatives [4,5], the commercialisation of OCCS technology is still impeded by technical barriers necessitating further development, such as the installation, size, and the substantial initial capital investment (CAPEX) and operating cost (OPEX). The introduction of carbon taxes (CTS), emissions trading schemes (ETS) [6], CO 2 offloading infrastructures, and tighter IMO emissions regulations are anticipated to drive OCCS implementation in the future. ...
... Hence, the operation of GT with a higher TET was shown to improve the performance of CCGT. The analysis on the gCO 2eq emissions from GT exhaust showed that CO 2 emission is more significant than other GHG such as CH 4 and N 2 O. The operation at higher TET has increased CO 2 emission, however, when the propulsion output was taken into account, the carbon intensity per unit of propulsion output was lower for GT Mass fraction of (a) CO 2 , CO 2 (GWP20) and CO 2 (GWP100) and (b) components H 2 , CH 4 , NO, NO 2 and N 2 O for gas turbine exhaust when the percentage of methane feed into the reformer was varied between 0 and 100 %. operation with high TET. ...
... methanol can reduce carbon emissions due to their relatively lower carbon content (Stec et al. 2021). LNG is considered to be the alternative fuel with the most potential for maritime transport (Law et al. 2022). It can reduce carbon emissions by at least 20% and virtually eliminates air pollutants compared to conventional marine fuels (Xu and Yang 2020). ...
In response to the EU ETS, we propose a cost model considering carbon emissions for container shipping, calculating fuel consumption, carbon emissions, EUA cost, and total cost of container shipping. We take a container ship operating on a route from the Far East to Northwest Europe as a case study. Environmental and economic impacts of including maritime transport activities in the EU ETS on container shipping are assessed. Results show that carbon emissions from the selected container ship using methanol are the smallest, and total cost of the selected container ship using methanol is the lowest. Among MGO, HFO, LNG, and methanol, methanol is the most environmentally and cost-effective option. Using LNG has greater environmental benefit, while using HFO has greater economic benefit. Compared to MGO, carbon reduction effects of LNG and methanol are 14.2% and 57.1%, and their cost control effects are 7.8% and 26.5%. Compared to HFO, carbon reduction effects of LNG and methanol are 11.7% and 55.8%, and the cost control effect of methanol is 9.3%. Speed reduction is effective in achieving carbon reduction and cost control of container shipping only when the sailing speed of the selected container ship is greater than 8.36 knots. Once the sailing speed is less than this threshold, speed reduction will increase carbon emissions and total cost of container shipping. This model can assess the environmental and economic impacts of including maritime transport activities in the EU ETS on container shipping and explore the measures to achieve carbon reduction and cost control of container shipping in response to the EU ETS.
... Ammonia [10][11][12][13][14][15][16][17][18][19][20][21] Biofuel [15,16,18,19,[22][23][24][25][26][27][28][29][30][31][32]] DME [16,28] Ethanol [16] Hydrogen [10,[12][13][14][15][17][18][19]21,25,28,29,31,[33][34][35][36]] LNG [10,11,[15][16][17][18][19][20]25,26,28,29,31,32,34 LCA of diesel and hydrogen power units for tugboats SimaPro 9.1 [33] LNG, methanol, ammonia, and MGO LCA for a very large crude carrier tanker N/A [11] LCA of LNG with CCS HFO with CCS, biodiesel, bio-methanol, ammonia, hydrogen, and electricity for different kinds of ships N/A [46] MGO, LNG, and hydrogen LCA for 170 GT ferry GaBi [34] LCA of ammonia, hydrogen, and electricity for 27 different ferries [13] Comparison of hydrogen-powered ICE and fuel cell using LCA OpenLCA [35] LCA and Life cycle cost assessment (LCCA) of ammonia and hydrogen fuel cells and diesel fuel on three passenger ships GREET 2020 [14] LCA of a dry bulk carrier utilizing biofuel N/A [24] Environmental and financial impact assessment of diesel, LNG, and methanol by a case study GREET [37] MGO, LNG, methanol, biodiesel, and hydrogen LCA for a super yacht OpenLCA [25] A comparative LCA of diesel and LNG fuelled two sister ferries ...
With the stricter rules introduced by the policymakers in maritime transportation, harmful emissions are aimed to be mitigated. Consequently, studies on alternative fuels have emerged, and different methods had adopted to evaluate fuel choices. Within this context, a well-to-wake life cycle assessment method is used to determine the environmental impacts of the fuel options. Included fuels in the study are ammonia, biodiesel, Dimethyl ether, electro Fischer Tropsch diesel fuel, electro methanol, Fischer Tropsch diesel fuel, hydrogen, liquefied natural gas, liquefied petroleum gas, marine diesel oil, marine gas oil, marine bio-oil, methanol, pyrolysis oil, renewable diesel, straight vegetable oil, and ultra-low sulfur heavy fuel oil. The paper aims to evaluate the fuels according to the 2050 strategy of the International Maritime Organization. Hence, black carbon, carbon monoxide, carbon dioxide, nitrous oxide, nitrogen oxide, sulfur oxide, particulate matter, methane, and volatile organic compounds are considered emissions. During the study, an ocean tanker model available in the GREET Model 2022 was used for life cycle inventory analysis, and life cycle assessment was conducted by Environmental Footprint Method 3.0, which is included in the OpenLCA. The assessment was carried out according to climate change, acidification, freshwater ecotoxicity, marine eutrophication, terrestrial eutrophication, non-cancer human toxicity, particulate matter, and photochemical ozone formation criteria. The results show that out of eight criteria, marine bio-oil became the most dominant choice due to the consumption of CO2 and methane while producing and low emission generation during combustion.
... In a study published in 2022, Mastorakos et al. assessed shipping fuel substitutes for HFO. The findings could help interested parties implement a decarbonization strategy [32]. Alcohol, ammonia, and biomethane could power ships, according to a different Lloyds Register-Maersk study [33]. ...
Recently, decarbonizing the maritime industry, which accounts for 2.8% of world emissions, has become essential. However, as a crucial component of maritime transportation, container shipping also carries substantial significance. In this context, the International Maritime Organization endeavors to endorse several projects and methods to mitigate maritime transport emissions. So, this study looks at frameworks, infrastructure, training, and other important factors for different operational and technological options for predicted decarbonization solutions in container shipping. It does this using the multi-criteria decision-making (MCDM) approach to find out what ship owners and other stakeholders want. It uses a thorough method that starts with a systematic literature review using the PRISMA method to make questionnaires. Then, the results are analyzed using the analytic hierarchy process (AHP) and the technique for order of preference by similarity to the ideal solution (TOPSIS). This research contributes to the scholarly discourse on reducing the emissions of maritime transportation. According to the findings, operational alternatives, such as ship speed, trim, and maritime route optimizations, are considerably more appealing than design and technology solutions, such as technically advanced ship hulls or machinery reforms. The pragmatic advantages of the operational alternatives, such as lower costs and shorter implementation schedules, stimulate their adoption. In contrast, design and technological solutions can influence emission reductions in the long term. It is possible to find operational alternatives for short-term decarbonization, while technical and design advancements can aid in long-term emission reductions in container shipping.
... However, capturing the CO 2 produced onboard is crucial for LNG-fuelled ships to meet IMO's reduction goal. Hence, onboard carbon capture and storage (OCCS) is an attractive proposition [4]. Studies related to ship-based CCS have been carried out focusing on the techno-economic assessment of the technology to decarbonize ships. ...
... By comparing LNG with CCS installation with other alternative fuels like ammonia, methanol, hydrogen, and electricity, Li Chin et al. showed that the cost of CCS installation and energy requirement was lower than the other alternatives [5]. In addition to this, only post-engine CCS has been considered [4] [5], while pre-combustion CCS (i.e. reforming LNG to H 2 and capturing the CO 2 ) has been proposed [6] but not studied in detail yet. ...
... In terms of safety, hydrogen is less safe than LNG because the former has low minimum ignition energy, high burning velocity, and a wide flammability range [10]. In terms of cost, the cost of hydrogen per unit of propulsion energy was estimated to be three times more expensive than LNG with CCS installation due to the high hydrogen storage cost and fuel price [5] [4]. For the same propulsion energy, hydrogen needs more than 4.5 times the HFO volume; hence, for the same size of storage tank, the usage of hydrogen fuel can limit the voyage distance [5] [4]. ...
The paper examines pre-combustion carbon capture technology (PreCCS) for liquefied natural gas (LNG) propelled shipping from thermodynamics and energy efficiency perspectives. Various types of LNG reformers and CCS units are considered. The steam methane reformer (SMR) was found to be 20% more energy efficient than autothermal (ATR) and methane pyrolysis (MPR) reactors. Pressure swing adsorption (PSA) had a lower energy requirement than membrane separation (MEM), cryogenic separation (CS), and amine absorption (AA) in pre-combustion carbon capture, with PSA needing 0.18 kWh/kg CO2. An integrated system combining SMR and PSA was proposed using waste heat recovery (WHR) from the engine, assuming similar efficiency for LNG and H2 operation, and cooling and liquefying of the CO2 by the LNG. The SMR-PSA system without WHR had an overall efficiency of 33.4% (defined as work at the propeller divided by the total LNG energy consumption). This was improved to 41.7% with WHR and gave a 65% CO2 emission reduction. For a higher CO2 reduction, CCS from the SMR heater could additionally be employed, giving a maximum CO2 removal rate of 86.2% with 39% overall energy efficiency. By comparison, an amine-based post-engine CCS system without reforming could reach similar CO2 removal rates but with 36.6% overall efficiency. The advantages and disadvantages and technology readiness level of PreCCS for onboard operation are discussed. This study offers evidence that pre-combustion CCS can be a serious contender for maritime propulsion decarbonization.
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