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Typical ABS components [4].
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Many different control methods for ABS systems have been developed. These methods differ in their theo-retical basis and performance under the changes of road conditions. The present review is a part of research project entitled "Intelligent Antilock Brake System Design for Road-Surfaces of Saudi Arabia". In the present paper we review the methods...
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Context 1
... stopping distance and sometimes the vehicle will lose steering stability [11-13]. The objective of ABS is to manipulate the wheel slip so that a maximum friction is obtained and the steering stability (also known as the lateral stability) is maintained. That is, to make the vehicle stop in the shortest distance possible while maintaining the directional control. The ideal goal for the control design is to regulate the wheel velocity. The technologies of ABS are also applied in traction control system (TCS) and vehicle dynamic stability control (VDSC) [14]. Typical ABS components include: vehicle’s physical brakes, wheel speed sensors (up to 4), an electronic control unit (ECU), brake master cylinder, a hydraulic modulator unit with pump and valves as shown in Figure 1 . Some of the advanced ABS systems include acceler- ometer to determine the deceleration of the vehicle. This paper is intended to present a literature review of research works done by many researchers concerning various aspects of ABS technology in an effort to improve the performance of its applications. The reason for the development of antilock brakes is in essence very simple. Under braking, if one or more of a vehicle’s wheels lock (begins to skid) then this has a number of consequences: a) braking distance increases, b) steering control is lost, and c) tire wear will be abnormal. The obvious consequence is that an accident is far more likely to occur. The application of brakes generates a force that impedes a vehicles motion by applying a force in the opposite direction. During severe braking scenarios, a point is obtained in which the tangential velocity of the tire surface and the velocity on road surface are not the same such that an optimal slip which corresponds to the maximum friction is obtained. The ABS controller must deal with the brake dynamics and the wheel dynamics as a whole plant [15]. The wheel slip, S is defined ...
Context 2
... ABS components include: vehicle's physical brakes, wheel speed sensors (up to 4), an electronic con- trol unit (ECU), brake master cylinder, a hydraulic modulator unit with pump and valves as shown in Figure 1. Some of the advanced ABS systems include acceler- ometer to determine the deceleration of the vehicle. ...
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Knowledge of tire–road friction conditions is indispensable for many vehicle control systems. In particular, friction information can be used to enhance the performance of wheel slip control systems, for example, knowledge of the current maximum coefficient of friction would allow an anti-lock brake system (ABS) controller to start braking with the...
Citations
... Various control techniques used in antilock braking systems are classified into two categories: (1) control achieved by continuously modulating brake pressure and torque and (2) control achieved by modulating brake pressure discretely for each wheel [5,6]. ...
... This research focuses on hydraulic braking systems due to their widespread adoption and the ease with which they can be maintained. Hydraulic systems are straightforward and can be readily integrated with additional assistance systems like Brake Booster [19][20][21], the Anti-Lock Brake System (ABS), and Electronic Brake Force Distribution (EBD) [22,23]. ...
This research presents the design of a brake fluid pressure warning and control system for autonomous vehicles (AVs) used on university campuses to control brake fluid pressure and measure the proximity of objects or obstacles in front of the vehicles using LiDAR. The goal was to reduce the jerking of the vehicle caused by the conventional braking system, which may cause danger to the user. We initially changed the existing brake system, which uses human braking force, to electric motor braking and tested it in a closed area (a test track) before actual use. This research was divided into two parts: Part 1—using LiDAR to create warnings in case there are obstacles in front of the vehicle and Part 2—controlling brake fluid pressure using a linear motor and a PD controller. Under the test conditions employed, at a speed of 20 km/h, the total load of passengers is 600 kg. The design results regarding the PD controller with the most suitable values of the system that prevent the vehicle from jerking are KD = 27.9606 and KP = 32.0490. The test was conducted while an object crossed the vehicle’s path at distances of 5, 10, 15, and 20 m, respectively. It was found that controlling brake fluid pressure by measuring the distance from the object helped reduce the braking time and jerking of the vehicle and could stop the vehicle before experiencing a collision. At a distance of 20 m, the vehicle could be stopped before the crash and was 3.7 m away from the object; at a distance of 15 m, the distance from the object was 3.1 m; and at a distance of 10 m, the distance from the object was 3 m. However, at a distance of 5 m, the brake system could not stop the vehicle, causing collision with the object because the distance from the object for braking was less than the designed distance. This shows that the warning system and the brake fluid pressure control system can operate in accordance with the corresponding conditions correctly, smoothly, and quickly within the specified distance and be applied to other types of vehicles.
... Secondly, vehicle experts have developed safety devices such as the anti-lock brake system (ABS), which is designed to keep a vehicle steerable and stable during heavy braking moments by preventing wheel lock [22,23]. ...
... During braking, there exist three types of braking modes based on the sequential occurrence of wheel lock-up: front-wheel lock-up followed by skidding, rear-wheel lockup followed by skidding, and simultaneous lock-up and skidding of both front and rear wheels [22,23]. Clearly, the simultaneous lock-up and skidding of both front and rear wheels demonstrates the most effective utilization of adhesion conditions. ...
... This issue was only resolved after the invention of ABS. For vehicles equipped with ABS, is generally between 0.4 and 0.5 [22]. In this study, the coefficient is set at 0.4. ...
Truck skidding crashes on horizontal curves pose a significant road safety concern, with improper braking being the primary cause. A data- and model-integrated driven method is proposed to investigate the mechanism and recommend the maximum safe braking deceleration rates without skidding (abbreviated as MSBDRs) for trucks on horizontal curves. Firstly, a comprehensive road–vehicle interaction model was developed, considering dynamic changes in brake force distribution, vertical tire load, and longitudinal and side friction during braking. Secondly, leveraging the “HighD” data set and employing cluster analysis principles, parameter data were extracted using Python and Matlab. Finally, through parameterizing model inputs, the transient dynamic response of trucks was examined, the potential of truck skidding was predicted, and the MSBDRs were recommended. The results indicate the following. (1) There is little concern of truck skidding during car-following braking maneuvers; however, there is a high potential of truck skidding during emergency braking maneuvers. (2) The MSBDR is 4.5 m/s² on a limit-minimum-radius horizontal curve; however, when combined with steep slopes, an overspeed exceeding 20%, and extremely wet road conditions, respectively, the MSBDRs decrease to 4 m/s², 3 m/s², and 2 m/s². These results provide a theoretical foundation for braking strategies in autonomous vehicles.
... Therefore, ABS is designed with slip control to regulate wheel slip, ensuring optimal traction and maintaining steering stability [4]. The vehicle's wheel slip ratio during hard braking is determined by the tires' ability to maintain optimal grip on the road surface [5], which enables the vehicle to stop within the shortest possible distance while retaining directional control [6]. ...
... The slip control law in ABS is generally designed to prevent wheel lock-up and maintain optimal traction between the tires and the road surface during severe braking. Achieving maximum traction is challenging because the relationship between wheel slip and friction varies with vehicle dynamics, tire characteristics, and road conditions [6]. Therefore, the ABS controller must be robust and adaptive to manage any distortions or mismatches in system parameters. ...
This paper presents a new approach to wheel slip control in Antilock Braking System (ABS) using an Approximated First Order Wheel Slip (AFOWS) Model Reference Adaptive Control (MRAC) based PID (AFOWS-MRAC-PID) controller. An ABS was modeled in a MATLAB/Simulink environment using a quarter car model with the proposed controller. Simulations were conducted with a wide range of adaptation gains (50, 100, 150, 200, and 250) to study the effectiveness of the proposed control system. The results revealed that the proposed system could track and maintain 10% wheel slip and eliminate oscillation (instability) in terms of overshoot associated with conventional PID controllers, particularly on wet and snowy road surfaces, using adaptation gains of 150, 200, and 250. Overall, the proposed system provided the best performance in terms of stopping distance, vehicle braking velocity, and braking torque on all road surfaces with an adaptation gain of 250, although braking on dry road surfaces was the most effective.
... To achieve this ideal goal, the controller must control and adjust the wheel speed to suit the current conditions of the road on which the car is moving. In recent times, many ABS technologies have also been applied in traction control systems (TCS) and vehicle dynamic stability control [3]. The controller has been designed based on torque input to the driving wheels [4]. ...
... The flow and pressure of liquid through the pump are determined according to Equations (2) and (3). Here: p out is the pressure in the pressure chamber; P in is the suction chamber pressure; f is area ratio between pressure chamber and suction chamber. ...
... The traction power on the left wheel is close to zero, at this time the engine power transmitted to the right wheel increases significantly, reaching the value N t = 4,071 W and continuing to increase slightly during the survey period, at the end of the period survey time N t = 4,315 W. The increased traction power of N r with the above value helps the vehicle quickly overcome slippery areas, causing the engine power transmitted to the wheels to not be wasted much, which leads to more efficient use of the engine's power, significantly increased compared to the case of not using this PID controller (η t = 47.94%). If this controller is not used, the car will not be able to move on surface MD-A, and engine power is wasted due to the left driving wheel over slipping [1][2][3]. The response ability of this PID controller is very good, after only 0.025s of impact, thereby showing that the designed controller meets control requirements. ...
In the anti-lock braking system, the brake actuator plays an indispensable role, regulating brake fluid to the brake cylinders on the wheels to perform the braking process following the system’s requirements. Regulating brake fluid is a crucial and complex job that affects the effectiveness of the braking process as well as the traction control system of the brake actuator on the vehicle. In this article, the solution to control the brake actuator is proposed based on the control mode of the valves inside it, ensuring that the braking process on the wheels is consistent with their rolling state on the road surface, thereby controlling traction on the active wheels. To achieve this goal, the movement speed of the valves in the actuator and the brake fluid pressure at the wheel cylinders must be controlled by a special control algorithm. In addition, several model parameter variables are also considered. Simulation results are shown to demonstrate the effectiveness of the proposed control law.
... This makes the braking distance shorter, and the vehicle remains stable or easy to control. Therefore, cars with ABS have the ability to reduce the stopping distance and increase maneuverability compared to those without this system (Fernandez et al., 2021;Aksjonov, Augsburg, and Vodovozov, 2016;Aly et al., 2011). ...
... The above solutions can ensure that the EMB can provide sufficient braking intensity while reducing the In addition, there are also coordination methods between the ABS and the regenerative braking system (RBS) or the power-consuming braking of the driving motor, which makes it difficult for the driving motor and the mechanical brake to work together to meet the high-frequency torque fluctuation requirements of ABS control. The role of ABS is to make the vehicle maintain sufficient maneuverability and stability under high braking conditions so as to improve road safety, and in the case of poor road adhesion conditions, the demands on the system are greater [17,18]. ABS initially uses a rule-based algorithm that takes into account slip rate and wheel deceleration. ...
Advancements in electric vehicle technology have promoted the development trend of smart and low-carbon environmental protection. The design and optimization of electric vehicle braking systems faces multiple challenges, including the reasonable allocation and control of braking torque to improve energy economy and braking performance. In this paper, a multi-source braking force system and its control strategy are proposed with the aim of enhancing braking strength, safety, and energy economy during the braking process. Firstly, an ENMPC (explicit nonlinear model predictive control)-based braking force control strategy is proposed to replace the traditional ABS strategy in order to improve braking strength and safety while providing a foundation for the participation of the drive motor in ABS (anti-lock braking system) regulation. Secondly, a grey wolf algorithm is used to rationally allocate mechanical and electrical braking forces, with power consumption as the fitness function, to obtain the optimal allocation method and provide potential for EMB (electro–mechanical brake) optimization. Finally, simulation tests verify that the proposed method can improve braking strength, safety, and energy economy for different road conditions, and compared to other methods, it shows good performance.
... An outstanding device in this arena is the Anti-lock Braking System (ABS), which successfully regulates brake torque to prevent wheel lock-up during braking maneuvers [5]. The development of motor-driven vehicles dates back to 1769, with the occurrence of the first recorded accident in 1770 [6]. Consequently, engineers began working on boosting vehicle safety and lowering driving accidents. ...
... In 1972, the first application of ABS in cars was introduced in England [7]. The 1980s witnessed widespread use and implementation of ABS, which is now commonly found in most late-model vehicles and even selected motorcycles [6]. Currently, Anti-Lock Braking System (ABS) technology has become widely established in both cars and motorcycles. ...
This study presents a comparative analysis of control strategies designed to enhance the performance of Anti-Lock Braking Systems (ABS) and improve vehicle safety. The research explores three key approaches: First, it evaluates Fuzzy Logic-Controlled ABS, comparing five defuzzification algorithms using MATLAB’s Fuzzy Logic Toolbox. Second, it investigates a Neural Network-Based Fault-Tolerant Control strategy, emphasizing improved fault tolerance during braking. Third, it assesses the performance of three ABS controllers—fuzzy logic, bangbang, and PID controllers. The findings reveal that Fuzzy Logic-Controlled ABS significantly enhances braking performance and directional stability, while Neural Networks demonstrate rapid response and accuracy in generating real-time substitute signals, thereby boosting system reliability. Among the controllers, the PID controller excels in reducing stopping distance and time, though the Fuzzy Logic Controller shows superior control over relative slip, enhancing steerability despite longer stopping distances and times. This comparative analysis provides valuable insights into ABS control strategies and their implications for vehicle safety. Future research should focus on refining ABS algorithms, developing robust fault detection mechanisms, and optimizing controller designs to further advance automotive safety and ABS efficiency.
... Several researches in the literature have addressed the control of the wheel slip [1]. The vehicle will likely slide after severe braking or slippery road condition, especially icy surfaces. ...
This paper deals with the design and analysis of a super twisting fractional-order sliding mode controller (ST-FOSMC) to adjust the vehicle longitudinal dynamic when braking. While vehicle loading, road types, and modeling uncertainties are time-varying parameters, the control law must be robust against these disturbances. Also, the aging of the brake plate may introduce a difference between the control output and the actuator response that should be considered. The proposed control strategy has been used to enable the anti-lock braking system (ABS) to track the desired wheel slip value despite the presence of disturbances and constant actuator fault. The design of this controller is presented and the system stability is guaranteed by applying the Lyapunov theory. We carried out a simulation example that makes a comparison between our controller and the one based on the fractional-order sliding mode control to investigate which one of them outperforms the other. The results exhibit the superiority of the super twisting fractional order controller over the traditional fractional-order sliding mode controller during the braking phase.
... Remark 2 (ECU Functionality): Our models of ECU computation for the use cases implemented are based on available open-source data (e.g., the functionality of ABS [23], [24], [25]). Obviously, any deployed vehicle includes ECUs developed by suppliers, including confidential and proprietary design IPs. ...
... Fig. 5 (a) provides an overview of the ABS use case. The functionality is fairly standard [23], [24], [25], which is simplified in Fig. 5(b). The indigenous processes for vehicular components involved in this use case, i.e., ECUs (ABS, ADAS, and gateway), sensors (brake pedal position and wheel speed sensor), and actuator (hydraulic modulator) taking part in the primary system design are shown in Fig. 5(c). ...
A critical requirement for robust, optimized, and secure design of vehicular systems is the ability to do system-level exploration, i.e., comprehend the interactions involved among ECUs, sensors, and communication interfaces in realizing system-level use cases and the impact of various design choices on these interactions. This must be done early in the system design to enable the designer to make optimal design choices without requiring a cost-prohibitive design overhaul. In this paper, we develop a virtual prototyping environment for the modeling and simulation of vehicular systems. Our solution, is modular and configurable, allowing the user to conveniently introduce new system-level use cases. Unlike other related simulation environments, our platform emphasizes coordination and communication among various vehicular components and just the abstraction of the necessary computation of each electronic control unit. We discuss the ability of to explore the interactions between a number of realistic use cases in the automotive domain. We demonstrate the utility of the platform, in particular, to create real-time in-vehicle communication optimizers for various optimization targets. We also show how to use such a prototyping environment to explore vehicular security compromises. Furthermore, we showcase the experimental integration and validation of the platform with a hardware setup in a real-time scenario.
