Table 2 - uploaded by Melissa Farley
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... article will use the terms interchangeably but usually default to "Native women". See Table 2 for detailed information about the tribal identity of the women interviewed for this report. 2 Currently, the United Nations (in one of the Palermo Protocols, adopted in 2000) defines "trafficking in persons" as "the recruitment, transportation, transfer, harboring or receipt of persons, by means of the threat or use of force or other forms of coercion, of abduction, of fraud, of deception, of the abuse of power or of a position of vulnerability or of the giving or receiving of payments or benefits to achieve the consent of a person having control over another person, for the purpose of exploitation." ...
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Study of child prostitution and its links with child migration and trafficking in Niamey, Niger.
Citations
... 163 Investigating Minnesota in particular, researchers found prostitution and sex trafficking of Native women and youth to be "institutionalized" in Duluth, where "multiple sources state that Native women, teenage girls and boys, and babies have been bought and sold on the ships." 164 As a Duluth police officer stated: ...
Close case readings focusing on the ICC support the theory that legal prostitution be recognized as a crime against humanity. Extensive social science research documents the coercion and damage attendant and endemic to the sex industry. Countries following the Swedish (now “Nordic/Equality”) prostitution model law, which penalizes buyers and third parties while supporting prostituted persons to escape, have decreased prostitution’s incidence, while countries in which prostitution is legalized have seen trafficking and other violative abuses metastasize.
This article analyzes in depth the prospect of holding authoritative actors accountable for legalized prostitution under the international legal rubric of crimes against humanity. It documents that legalized and fully decriminalized prostitution release a tsunami of crimes against humanity for which these policies guarantee domestic impunity. Empirical evidence marshaled shows that legal prostitution exponentially increases “widespread” and “systematic attacks” against prostituted persons, including “rape, enforced prostitution, enslavement, human trafficking, sexual slavery,” and other atrocities enumerated under international law and the Rome Statute of the International Criminal Court (ICC).
... As can be seen, the legalization of sex work facilitated the existence of areas where prostitution is accepted, being seen as a normal practice. Although the authorities try to control the phenomenon of prostitution and human trafficking for sexual exploitation, organized crime groups manage to collect many victims (Farley et al., 2011). ...
Objective. The objective was to analyze the impact of institutional practices on the physical and mental health of women victims of human trafficking and prostitution, as well as to highlight the main risk factors for them. Material and methods. By using several databases, the number of studies included in this meta-analysis was 25. Scientific articles, doctoral theses, dissertations, presentations at conferences, book chapters, or reports were taken into account. There were longitudinal or cross-sectional studies. The meta-analysis totaled 455,406 subjects, the heterogeneity being a significant one (Q = 5062,288, df = 24, p = 0.000), and we increase the average effect, 38% of the variance of the results being due to the studied variables (95%: 1.08 % – 0.31%). Results. The hostile attitude of the authorities towards sex workers and the refusal to offer protection were identified as the most widespread consequences of institutional practices. Other consequences that arise as a result of the direct interaction of sex workers with the authorities are risky behaviors such as drug use, violent sexual acts, or discontinuation of drug treatment. The key risk factors for women in this category are psychological difficulties, gender and economic inequalities and an inadequate sexual history. Conclusions. There is a continuous interaction between the legislative model, institutional practices, and the physical and mental health of sex workers. Awareness and understanding of the problems that these women face when they practice prostitution would facilitate the improvement of the management capacity of this phenomenon. Keywords: prostitution, human trafficking, legislative model, risk.
... The interviews followed a semi-structured interview guide, which was iteratively revised as data collection and analysis progressed. The interview guide elicited a number of topic areas drawn from previous research on commercial sexualized exploitation (Farley et al., 2003;Farley et al., 2011;Grudzen et al., 2009Grudzen et al., , 2011Javanbakht et al., 2017). The interviews began with questions about the participants' current life situation: age, education, work, financial situation, and relationships. ...
Despite being a global, billion-dollar industry, very little is known about the conditions women face within the pornography industry. The aim of this study was to explore women’s experiences in pornography production, with a particular focus on structural antecedents to entrance, coercion, and violence within the industry, as well as current needs and any barriers to exiting the industry. Semi-structured, in-depth interviews were conducted with nine women with experiences in pornography production in Sweden. Participants identified young age, financial insecurity, earlier exposure to sexualized violence, and poor mental health as typical antecedents to entering the pornography industry. Once in the industry, women risk manipulation and coercion by pornographers and porn buyers, making it difficult to maintain personal boundaries. Women are regularly harassed by porn buyers who send requests to purchase specific sexualized acts online or offline. The greater a woman’s vulnerability, the more difficult it is to resist pornographer’s and porn buyer’s demands. Experiences in prostitution and other forms of commercial sexualized exploitation are common. A significant barrier to exiting pornography production is the distress of having one’s pornographic images remain online indefinitely. In order to exit the pornography industry and access real alternatives, participants stressed the importance of vocational training, further education and psychosocial support. This study is an important step in elucidating the situation faced by women in pornography production. Further documentation of harms and assessment of needs is warranted for policymaking and the development of effective support services for this vulnerable population.
... Although this is obviously a matter of fierce debate, it can certainly be argued that prostitution/sex work does potentially contravene this value and, indeed, the UN Convention for the Suppression of the Traffic in Persons and of the Exploitation of the Prostitution of Others, recognises prostitution/sex work as 'incompatible with the dignity and worth of the human person' (United Nations 1949, n.p). Broader questions about inequality are also avoided in this Dimension but are especially important to deal with in a context where a particular industry is founded upon a variety of inequalities: economic, racial, and gender-based (Coy 2012;Farley et al. 2011). That is, the vast majority of people in prostitution are women and girls, with an over-representation of marginalised groups within this, including: Indigenous women, migrant women, women from ethnic minorities, women in poverty, women experiencing domestic abuse, homeless women and drug-addicted women (Coy et al. 2016; see also : Cobbina & Oselin, 2011;Farley 2020;Farley et al. 2003;Kempadoo 2001;Macy and Graham 2012;Monroe 2005;NWAC, 2014;Raphael 2004;Scully 2001;Stark and Hodgson 2004). ...
... Finally, abuse, violence and harassment are also covered here, and this relates back to Dimension 2 -health and safetywhere extremely high levels of violence were outlined. Rates that are high enough for some to question whether or not it is possible to regulate out this abuse, or if there is something more fundamental about the inequalities of imperialist white-supremacist capitalist patriarchy that demand the inequalities and abuses of prostitution/sex work (Bindel 2017;Carter and Giobbe 1999;Coy 2012;Farley et al. 2011;Roy 2018). ...
The notion of unacceptable work has formed, in part, as a counterweight to the push for decent or better forms of work. That is, naming and understanding the functioning of unacceptable work helps ‘promote respect for rights at work by eliminating egregious labour practices’. There are important insights around unacceptable work to be gained from feminist debates on the sex industry. Engaging with these debates through the prism of unacceptable work can illuminate the way in which systems of prostitution can function simultaneously as forms of labour and as forms of exploitation and violence against women. If prostitution/sex work meets many of the criteria available for understanding unacceptable forms of work, then the question of abolition can be raised from a labour rights perspective. Following this logic, it is also possible to view the Equality/Nordic Model of asymmetric decriminalisation of the sex industry (where prostituted persons are decriminalised, but brothel owning and the purchase of sexual access are criminalised) as a form of innovative policy to address unacceptable work, and promote decent work.
... Deering and colleagues (2014) found in their systematic review of over 1,000 research studies that lifetime prevalence of experiencing any physical or sexual violence in prostitution ranged from 45% to 75%, and in the past year, prevalence ranged from 32% to 55%. In the United States specifically, one study of 105 female sex workers in Minnesota revealed that 72% of the sex workers suffered from traumatic brain injury through the course of their work, with various injuries to the face and head, including broken jaws, fractured facial bones, missing teeth, black eyes, and more (Farley et al., 2011). A more recent study reported that 95% of the female sex workers (n = 65) had experienced a head injury in their lifetime, and 61% had sustained a head injury as a result of their sex work (Farley, Banks, Ackerman, & Golding, 2018). ...
... Most programs provided some form of counseling (whether individual or group counseling), but only three of the six programs included some form of drug and alcohol treatment. Prior research indicates that sex workers and sex trafficking victims have high rates of physical and sexual trauma exposure, both in their lifetime and in their recent past as a sex worker (Deering et al., 2014;El-Bassel et al., 2001;Farley et al., 2011;Farley et al., 2018), which corresponds to acute and long-lasting mental health problems (Valera et al., 2001) and high rates of drug and alcohol use (Young et al., 2000). Therefore, the inclusion of counseling and substance abuse treatment aligns with the needs of these individuals that have been identified in the research. ...
Objective
Court diversion programs offer alternative treatment interventions in lieu of punitive sanctions. Programs have recently been developed for women arrested for prostitution, with a recognition that many of these individuals frequently experience multiple forms of violence and experience multiple barriers to exiting sex work. This review aims to (a) examine programmatic components used across programs, and (b) identify the diversionary programs' impact on participants.
Methods
Studies were identified by entering key search words into three electronic databases and by conducting a citation search.
Results
Nine articles were included in the review. Although programs varied in structure, services, and length of time, studies indicated a range of positive outcomes for participants.
Conclusions
Results help to illuminate future directions for criminal justice practice, policy, and research.
... Alleen Brown (2018) describes the legal and political structures that inhibit investigations into Indigenous women who have disappeared. Farley et al. (2011) reporting on sex trafficking and Native women, document the tremendous violence that is aimed at Indigenous women in prostitution, a violence that Indigenous sex workers describe as specifically aimed at them as Indian women. ...
On 27 March 2014, Loreal Tsingine, a 27-year-old Navajo woman was shot and killed by Austin Shipley, a white male police officer, also 27 years old, who said he was trying to apprehend her for a suspected shoplifting. Shipley was never charged, and the Department of Justice declined to investigate the Winslow police on the matter. This article explores Shipley’s killing of Loreal Tsingine and the police investigation of the shooting as quotidian events in settler colonial states. Police shootings of Indigenous people and the legal response to police use of force (along with everyday settler violence) are a part of the racial terror that is a central part of settler colonialism. Both the shooting and the official narratives of it as a justifiable use of force reveal the psychic and material underpinnings of a settler state, a state that continually imagines and consolidates itself as a community of whites imperiled by Indians among others. White settler violence directed at those imagined as threats lives just beneath the surface of everyday settler life, and importantly, flows through institutions such as policing, embedding itself in everyday professional routines. The extractive relations that are the basis of settler colonialism require and produce white subjects for whom Indigenous lands and bodies are the resource for white identity; policing is one site where white men and women (as well as those aspiring to whiteness), can enact racial hierarchy on behalf of the colonial state with impunity.
... Moreover, an Indigenous woman will likely experience multiple forms of violence across her lifetime. In a study on sex trafficking in Minnesota, 72 percent of the Indigenous women interviewed reported experiencing childhood sexual abuse by an average of four perpetrators, while 92 percent of women interviewed had been raped (Farley et al. 2011). Indigenous women in the United States report experiencing multiple types of violence, with more than half experiencing sexual violence, physical violence by an intimate partner, stalking, or psychological aggression by an intimate partner (Rosay 2016). ...
Settler colonial violence targets Indigenous women in specific ways. While urban planning has attended to issues of women’s safety, the physical dimensions of safety tend to be emphasized over the social and political causes of women’s vulnerability to violence. In this paper, we trace the relationship between settler colonialism and violence against Indigenous women. Drawing on examples from community activism and organizing, we consider how Indigenous feminism might be applied to planning and point toward approaches to planning that do not replicate settler colonial violence.
... Women of color and Indigenous women have written and spoken powerfully about how sex industries are built on racism and histories of colonialism. For example, Carter (2004) has made critical connections between the prostitution of black women and slavery (see also Carter & Giobbe, 1999;Nelson, 1993); Butler (2015) has applied a critical race feminist perspective to prostitution and its impacts on women of color; Stark (2014), Smiley (2016), Farley, Lynne, and Cotton (2005), and Farley et al., (2011), among others, have examined the ways that the prostitution of Indigenous women and girls is also connected to ideologies and processes of colonization. Numerous individual women and feminist women's groups outside of academia have also developed important analyses in regard to the foundational roles that racism and colonization play in the prostitution of women of color and Indigenous women. 2 Intersecting with patriarchy and racism are the ways in which poverty funnels women into prostitution (e.g., Marttilla, 2008;Monroe, 2005). ...
... In the few studies available, statistics on traumatic brain injury are not generated using TBI-specific screening tools but rather general questions about injury to the head. For example, in a study of 105 women working in sex work in Minnesota, the authors concluded that 72% had suffered traumatic brain injury, citing a variety of injuries to the face and head (Farley et al., 2011). These injuries included Bbroken jaws, fractured cheekbones, missing teeth, punched lips, black eyes, blood clots in the head, hearing loss, memory loss, headaches, and neck problems^ (Farley et al., 2011, p. 30). ...
... We found that 90% (nine out of ten) of participants had suffered a TBI over their lifetime and all participants reported at least one head injury related to violence in their sex work. This mirrors previous research which found that 72% of Indigenous women involved in sex work had suffered TBIs (Farley et al., 2011). ...
Women and transgender women sex workers have similar experiences of housing instability, childhood trauma, and victimization to populations with high rates of traumatic brain injury (TBI), such as people experiencing homelessness and incarceration; yet, there is little research on TBI among sex workers. We conducted a mixed method study using qualitative interviews and the Ohio State University TBI Identification Method to understand experiences of violence and head injury with 10 participants recruited from Elizabeth Fry Toronto. Head injuries which resulted in loss of consciousness, or a change in conscious state, a report of feeling dazed or a gap in memory, were classified as traumatic brain injuries. All other injuries to the head which did not meet these criteria were classified as head injuries. Ninety percent of participants reported at least one lifetime TBI, and all participants reported at least one head injury related to violence in sex work. Findings indicate the need to educate sex workers on the seriousness of head injuries and the importance of treatment. Participants spoke of widespread stigma and discrimination as barriers to care, which may be mitigated by enhanced training with an anti-oppressive framework in the health care sector and in law enforcement. Participants felt that peer support workers could best deliver education and create awareness of TBI among people involved in sex work. The magnitude of violence and TBI in this population indicates the need for future research to determine actual prevalence of TBI and appropriate screening tools combined with educational programs.
... Past research with trauma survivors has indicated that assaultive traumas, greater number of traumas, PTSD, depression, and anxiety are associated with mental-health-service use (Gavrilovic, Schützwohl, Fazel, & Priebe, 2005;Johnson & Zlotnick, 2007). Emerging research suggests sex-trafficking survivors commonly desire mental-health-treatment services and often perceive benefits from those services when provided (Aron, Zweig, & Newmark, 2006;Deb, Mukhergee, & Mathews, 2011;Farley et al., 2011;Kerr, 2016). The findings from this study suggest it is possible to engage sex-trafficking survivors in mental-health treatment, particularly if the victim is experiencing high symptom severity. ...
This pilot study aimed to provide a preliminary comparison of the differences in traumatic experiences, mental health needs, and service use in transition age youth (TAY) and older adults who were victims of human sex trafficking. Twenty-seven individuals who had experienced human sex trafficking and were seeking mental health services participated in the study. Participants completed a demographic questionnaire, the PTSD Checklist- Civilian version 5 (PCL-5), Life Events Checklist (LEC), and the Brief Symptom Inventory-18 (BSI-18), and provided information with relation to mental health service use. No age related differences were found with respect to demographic characteristics, traumatic experiences, mental health difficulties, or service use. Overall, both the TAY group and older adult group reported high levels of trauma exposure and mental health issues. Service use was found to be positively correlated with symptom severity of PTSD, depression, somatization, anxiety, and global severity of distress in the full sample. Implications for future research and treatment engagement for victims of human sex trafficking are discussed.
