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Ebola virus (EBOV) is an extremely contagious pathogen and causes lethal hemorrhagic fever disease in man and animals. The recently occurred Ebola virus disease (EVD) outbreaks in the West African countries have categorized it as an international health concern. For the virus maintenance and transmission, the non-human primates and reservoir hosts...
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Our knowledge regarding transmission of EBOV between individuals is vague and is mostly limited to spreading via direct contact with infectious bodily fluids. Studying transmission parameters such as dose and route of infection is nearly impossible in naturally acquired cases—hence the requirement for a laboratory animal model. Here, we show as a p...
Background:
The 2013-2016 West African Ebola virus disease epidemic was unprecedented in terms of the number of cases and survivors. Prior to this epidemic there was limited data available on the persistence of Ebola virus in survivors' body fluids and the potential risk of transmission, including sexual transmission.
Methodology/principal findin...
Citations
... This supports the hypothesis of a natural reservoir for the virus, likely in fruit bats, although the exact reservoir has not yet been confirmed [7]. Historically, SUDV outbreaks have been less frequent than EBOV outbreaks but have still caused major epidemics, such as those in Uganda in 2000, 2011, and 2014 [8]. Unlike EBOV, which saw widespread during the 2014-2016 West African outbreak [9], SUDV has remained predominantly confined to specific regions, with limited but highly lethal transmission. ...
1Background. Sudan virus (SUDV) has caused multiple outbreaks in Uganda over the past two decades, leading to significant morbidity and mortality. The recent outbreaks in 2022 and 2025 highlight the ongoing threat posed by SUDV and the challenges in its containment. This study aims to characterize the epidemiological patterns and phylogenomic evolution of SUDV outbreaks in Uganda, identifying key factors influencing transmission and disease severity. Methods. We conducted a retrospective observational study analyzing epidemiological and genomic data from SUDV outbreaks in Uganda between 2000 and 2025. Epidemiological data were collected from official sources, including the Ugandan Ministry of Health and the World Health Organization, supplemented with reports from public health organizations. Genomic sequences of SUDV were analyzed to investigate viral evolution and identify genetic variations associated with pathogenicity and transmissibility. Results. The 2022 outbreak involved 164 confirmed cases and a case fatality rate (CFR) of 33.5%, with significant geographic variation in case distribution. The 2025 outbreak, still ongoing, was first detected in Kampala, with evidence of both nosocomial and community transmission. Phylogenomic analysis revealed the presence of two main genetic groups, representing Sudan and Uganda, respectively. The genetic variability of the Ugandan cluster is higher than that observed in Sudan, suggesting a greater expansion potential, which aligns with the current outbreak. Epidemiological findings indicate that human mobility, weaknesses in the health system, and delays in detection contribute to the amplification of the outbreak. Conclusions. Our findings underscore the importance of integrated genomic and epidemiological surveillance in understanding SUDV transmission dynamics. The recurrent emergence of SUDV highlights the need for improved outbreak preparedness, rapid response mechanisms, and international collaboration. Strengthening real-time surveillance and enhancing healthcare system resilience are critical to mitigating the impact of future outbreaks.
... According to the Center for Disease Control and Prevention report [16,19,20], the virus is transmitted to humans either through contact with bodily fluids of infected animals or humans. These include contact with blood, mucus, saliva, vomit, sweat, urine, breast milk, deceased body among others [27,28,47]. The virus invasion in humans appears to occur through mucosal surfaces, breaks, and abrasions in the skin, or extractive industry, and inadequate resources deployed in the diagnosis and treatment of infected persons. ...
The West African sub-region bore the brunt of the world's largest Ebola outbreak, significantly impacting the economic activities and trade shares of the affected countries. This study seeks to examine the repercussions of the Ebola Virus Disease (EVD) on the trade shares of affected countries and to explore the potential influence of ECOWAS membership on intra-regional trade in West Africa. Using the Poison Pseudo Maximum Likelihood (PPML) estimation technique, an analysis of the augmented gravity model of international trade was conducted. The findings indicate a two-fold reduction in the trade shares of affected countries with their intra-regional partners due to the Ebola Virus Disease. Additionally, with Mauritania expressing its desire to join the ECOWAS sub-region, there is a need to explore the impact of the Regional Economic Community on intra-regional trade. Furthermore, the study reveals that ECOWAS membership has the potential to double trade levels in West Africa. The findings also suggest that Mauritania stands to gain significant benefits from becoming a member of the ECOWAS. In conclusion, this study highlights the necessity for ECOWAS to proactively respond to disease outbreaks and underscores the importance of increased research investment. Moreover, it emphasizes the need for the ECOWAS to further improve infrastructure to facilitate intra-regional trade, especially in transportation.
... Marburg virus disease (MVD) is a zoonotic illness with a case death rate of 88 percent. It is caused by the Marburg virus (MARV), An individual belonging to the Filoviridae family, which also harbors the Ebola virus [30]. Phylogenetic study of the genomic sequence data shows that there are five different lineages of MARV. ...
The primary objective of this research is to examine the model of Marburg virus disease with therapy to prevent the infections from spreading throughout the community due to saliva, urine, and feces. A mathematical model is established using the created hypothesis for a healthy environment in order to examine the different rates of Marburg virus disease after taking control measures with treatment for different protection. The model is then converted into a fractional ordered model for continuous monitoring, including theoretical solutions, by using the Fractal Fractional operator. The model’s global stability is studied through Lyapunov derivative by equilibrium and endemic point of model. Both qualitative and quantitative analysis is done on a proposed model with the power law kernel, with particular focus on unique solutions, positivity, and boundedness. By using of fixed point theory and the Lipschitz condition, there is only one exact solution. By confirming the Lyapunov function globally, equilibrium points that are both endemic and disease-free are checked for stability. Numerical simulations are utilized to investigate the effects of the fractal fractional operator on the generalized form of the power law kernel using a two-step Lagrange polynomial approach for ongoing monitoring of the Marburg virus disease and treatment strategies. The simulations show how different parameters affect the illness. In order to simulate the actual behavior and management of Marburg virus disease produced by saliva, urine, and feces and to implement control measures for a healthy environment with a hypersensitive reaction (HR), simulations have been constructed. This type of research will be helpful in figuring out how diseases spread and in developing management strategies based on our verified results for human in community.
... The current nature of global trade and tourism has increased the chances of Ebola virus spreading to other continents, causing massive outbreaks. The recent epidemics should serve as a wake-up call to the world, ensuring that everyone is well prepared for the next pandemic if one occurs [14]. One Health Approach is a multidisciplinary approach that promotes collaboration between various sectors, including public, animal, and environmental health, to address the complex health concerns that the world is facing [15]. ...
... The precise host and reservoir ranges remain unknown. However, there are indications that the primary hosts of Ebola virus are primates, including humans, chimpanzees, gorillas, and monkeys [14,25]. The natural reservoirs of Ebola virus are thought to be the fruit bats of the Pteropodidae family. ...
... However, unlike bats, these animals typically suffer from severe and often fatal illnesses when infected. These animals can carry the virus asymptomatically and shed it in their bodily fluids, which can infect humans who come into contact with it through hunting or handling of bushmeat [14,27,28]. ...
Abstract
Ebola virus disease (EVD) is a severe and highly fatal zoonotic disease caused by viruses in the family Filoviridae and genus Ebolavirus. The disease first appeared in Zaire near the Ebola River in 1976, now in the Democratic Republic of the Congo. Since then, several outbreaks have been reported in different parts of the world, mainly in Africa, leading to the identification of six distinct viral strains that cause disease in humans and other primates. Bats are assumed to be the main reservoir hosts of the virus, and the initial incidence of human epidemics invariably follows exposure to infected forest animals through contact or consumption of bush meat and body fluids of forest animals harboring the disease. Human-to-human transmission occurs when contaminated body fluids, utensils, and equipment come in contact with broken or abraded skin and mucous membranes. EVD is characterized by sudden onset of ‘flu-like’ symptoms (fever, myalgia, chills), vomiting and diarrhea, then disease rapidly evolves into a severe state with a rapid clinical decline which may lead potential hemorrhagic complications and multiple organ failure. Effective EVD prevention, detection, and response necessitate strong coordination across the animal, human, and environmental health sectors, as well as well-defined roles and responsibilities evidencing the significance of one health approach; the natural history, epidemiology, pathogenesis, and diagnostic procedures of the Ebola virus, as well as prevention and control efforts in light of one health approach, are discussed in this article.
Keywords
Ebolavirus
Epidemiology
One health approach
Control and prevention
... Several ebola virus disease (EVD) outbreaks have been documented in East, Central, and Western African countries [1] . Democratic Republic of Congo (DRC) has experienced frequent epidemics of EVD [2] . The genus Ebolavirus consists of six enzootic virus species, including Zaire ebolavirus (EBOV), Sudan ebolavirus (SUDV), Taï Forest ebolavirus (TAFV), and Bundibugyo ebolavirus (BDBV) that infect human causing deadly hemorrhagic illness, named EVD; Reston ebolavirus (RESTV) that causes EVD in nonhuman primates and pigs, but asymptomatic infection in human and Bombali ebolavirus (BOMV) that was recently found in the Angolan free-tailed bat (Mops condyrulus) and little free-tailed bat (Chaerephon pumilus); this virus can infect human cells but has not been shown to be pathogenic [2][3][4] . ...
... Democratic Republic of Congo (DRC) has experienced frequent epidemics of EVD [2] . The genus Ebolavirus consists of six enzootic virus species, including Zaire ebolavirus (EBOV), Sudan ebolavirus (SUDV), Taï Forest ebolavirus (TAFV), and Bundibugyo ebolavirus (BDBV) that infect human causing deadly hemorrhagic illness, named EVD; Reston ebolavirus (RESTV) that causes EVD in nonhuman primates and pigs, but asymptomatic infection in human and Bombali ebolavirus (BOMV) that was recently found in the Angolan free-tailed bat (Mops condyrulus) and little free-tailed bat (Chaerephon pumilus); this virus can infect human cells but has not been shown to be pathogenic [2][3][4] . EBOV was the causative agent of almost all of the EVD outbreaks during the last decade. ...
... EBOV was the causative agent of almost all of the EVD outbreaks during the last decade. Accidental spillover of the EBOV, SUDV, TAFV, and BDBV to humans can lead to EVD outbreaks [2] . The most recent outbreak of EDVD creating an alert has been reported to be caused by SUDV in Uganda during mid of September 2022 [5] . ...
Outbreaks of African filoviruses often have resulted into high
mortality, and of these, the West Africa Ebola outbreak during
2014–2016 accounted for more than 11 000 deaths among
around 28 000 cases. Several ebola virus disease (EVD) outbreaks have been documented in East, Central, and Western African countries. Democratic Republic of Congo (DRC) has experienced frequent epidemics of EVD. The genus Ebolavirus consists of six enzootic virus species, including Zaire ebolavirus
(EBOV), Sudan ebolavirus (SUDV), Taï Forest ebolavirus (TAFV), and Bundibugyo ebolavirus (BDBV) that infect human causing deadly hemorrhagic illness, named EVD; Reston ebolavirus (RESTV) that causes EVD in nonhuman primates and pigs, but asymptomatic infection in human and Bombali ebolavirus (BOMV) that was recently found in the Angolan free-tailed bat (Mops condyrulus) and little free-tailed bat (Chaerephon pumilus); this virus can infect human cells but has not been shown to be
pathogenic. EBOV was the causative agent of almost all of the
EVD outbreaks during the last decade. Accidental spillover of the
EBOV, SUDV, TAFV, and BDBV to humans can lead to EVD
outbreaks. The most recent outbreak of EDVD creating an alert has been reported to be caused by SUDV in Uganda during mid of
September 2022. Before this, on 21 August 2022, an Ebola outbreak was reported from the DRC, Beni health zone, North
Kivu Province, with a fatal case, which was declared to end by 29
September 2022 by the WHO.
... Variation in economic activity is correlated with a host of socioeconomic factors (e.g., Fuchs 2004, Rothstein and Holmberg 2011, Korotayev et al. 2018, Hill et al. 2019. Economic marginalization, particularly, could increase the chances that a spillover event develops into a full-blown outbreak by reducing the quality and accessibility of health care (Williamson and Fast 1998, Shi and Stevens 2005, Peters et al. 2008, and resources available for detection and containment of spillover events (Rouquet et al. 2005, Singh et al. 2017. ...
Outbreaks of African filoviruses often have high mortality, including more than 11,000 deaths among 28,562 cases during the West Africa Ebola outbreak of 2014-2016. Numerous studies have investigated the factors that contributed to individual filovirus outbreaks, but there has been little quantitative synthesis of this work. In addition, the ways in which the typical causes of filovirus outbreaks differ from other zoonoses remain poorly described. In this study, we quantify factors associated with 45 outbreaks of African filoviruses (ebolaviruses and Marburg virus) using a rubric of 48 candidate causal drivers. For filovirus outbreaks, we reviewed >700 peer-reviewed and gray literature sources and developed a list of the factors reported to contribute to each outbreak (i.e., a "driver profile" for each outbreak). We compare and contrast the profiles of filovirus outbreaks to 200 background outbreaks, randomly selected from a global database of 4463 outbreaks of bacterial and viral zoonotic diseases. We also test whether the quantitative patterns that we observed were robust to the influences of six covariates, country-level factors such as gross domestic product, population density, and latitude that have been shown to bias global outbreak data. We find that, regardless of whether covariates are included or excluded from models, the driver profile of filovirus outbreaks differs from that of background outbreaks. Socioeconomic factors such as trade and travel, wild game consumption, failures of medical procedures, and deficiencies in human health infrastructure were more frequently reported in filovirus outbreaks than in the comparison group. Based on our results, we also present a review of drivers reported in at least 10% of filovirus outbreaks, with examples of each provided.
... Marburg virus (MARV), a member of the family Filoviridae that also contain the Ebola virus, causes Marburg virus disease (MVD) which is zoonotic in nature as well as a very fatal disease with up to 88 percent case fatality rate (Singh et al. 2017;Asad et al. 2020;WHO 2021;Zhao et al. 2022). There are five distinct lineages of MARV as is revealed by phylogenetic analysis of the data regarding genomic sequences. ...
Marburg virus disease (MVD) is a highly fatal disease caused by Marburg virus (MARV) which belongs to the family- Filoviridae. The disease has been recently reported from Ghana, an African country, and nearly 15 outbreaks of MVD have been reported in past five decades. Various species of bats viz., Rousettus aegyptiacus, Hipposideros caffer and certain Chiroptera act as the natural source of infection. Pathophysiology of the disease reveals severe antiviral suppression due to changes in gene expression and interferon-stimulated gene (ISG) production in the hepatic cells. With progression of the disease, there may be development of pain in the abdomen, nausea, vomition, pharyngitis and diarrhea along with onset of hemorrhagic manifestations which may lead to death of patient. The advent of molecular detection techniques and kits viz., reverse transcription polymerase chain reaction (RT-PCR) kit has greatly aided in diagnosis of MVD. Identification of the virus in the specimen with great accuracy can be done by whole viral genome sequencing. The use of combination of MR-186-YTE (monoclonal antibody) and an antiviral drug named remdesivir in NHP model has been found to be greatly effective for eliminating MARV. The protective effect of a Vesicular stomatitis virus (VSV) (recombinant)- based vaccine expressing the glycoprotein of MARV has been revealed through animal model studies, other vaccines are also being developed. Proper health education, personal hygiene and precautions by health care workers while handling patients, good laboratory facilities and service along with establishment of enhanced surveillance systems are the need of the hour to tackle this highly fatal disease. This article presents an overview on different aspects and salient features of MARV / MVD, and prevention and control strategies to be adopted.
... The majority of transmission events were between family members (74%) caused by direct contact with the affected persons or bodies of those who died from External ventricular drains (EVD) through blood and contact with fluid body secretions. This has being the most dangerous and effective way of transmission of the virus [7]. The infection projects itself in two phases with symptoms ranging from fever, fatigue, rashes, vomiting in the early phase, whereas in the late phase hemorrhagic shock occurs eventually resulting in death [8]. ...
The Ebola virus disease causing hemorrhagic fever in human, has been known for nearly about 40 years, with the most recent outbreak being in West Africa creating humanitarian crisis, where over 11,308 deaths were recorded as reported in 30 th March, 2016 (World Health Organization). Till now, Ebola virus drugs have been far from achieving regulatory FDA approval, and coupled with toxicity of these drugs, it is become imperative to appraise the available trail drugs, as well as looking into alternative natural resources of tackling menace. Therefore, in silico methods were used to assess the potency of the bioactive phytochemical, Curcumin from Turmeric and results compared with those obtained for some selected trial drugs in use for the treatment of Ebola virus. This study is focused on molecular docking of Curcumin and eight commercially available drugs (Amodiaquine, Apilimod, Azithromycin, Bepridil, Pyronaridine, Remedesivir and Tilorone) against Ebola transcription activator VP30 proteins (PDB: 2I8B, 4Z9P and 5T3T) and their ADMET profiling. The results showed that binding affinity (ΔG kJ/mol) ranged from-5.8 (Tilorone) to-7.3 (Remdesivir) for 218B,-6.4 (Tilorone) to-8.2 (Pyronaridine, Remedesivir) and-5.8 (Bepridil) to-7.4 (Pyronaridine). Curcumin could be more desirable as inhibitor for than Tilorone, Dronedarone and Bepridil in the treatment of Ebola virus; the ADMET profile revealed that Curcumin presents attractive pharmacokinetic properties than the trial drugs.
... The four Ebola virus strains; Ebola Zaire virus, Ebola Reston virus, Ebola Sudan virus, Ebola Ivory Coast virus and Marburg virus are known to cause severe viral hemorrhagic fever in humans except for Reston. RESTV the only subtype reported outside African continent causes mild disease in pigs, severe disease in non-human primates with no reports of disease in human [85][86][87][88]. The bat species implicated involves little free-tailed bat (Chaerephon pumilus), Angola free tailed bat (Mopscondylurus) and Wahlberg's epauletted fruit bat species (Epomophorus wahlbergi) [9]. ...
Bats have a primeval evolutionary origin and have adopted various survival methods. They have played a central role in the emergence of various viral diseases. The sustenance of a plethora of virus species inside them has been an earnest area of study. This review explains how the evolution of viruses in bats has been linked to their metabolic pathways, flight abilities, reproductive abilities and colonization behaviors. The utilization of host immune response by DNA and RNA viruses is a commencement of the understanding of differences in the impact of viral infection in bats from other mammals. Rabies virus and other lyssa viruses have had long documented history as bat viruses. While many others like Ebola virus, Nipah virus, Hantavirus, SARS-CoV, MERS-CoV and other new emerging viruses like Sosuga virus, Menangle and Tioman virus are now being studied extensively for their transmission in new hosts. The ongoing pandemic SARS-CoV-2 virus has also been implicated to be originated from bats. Certain factors have been linked to spillover events while the scope of entitlement of other conditions in the spread of diseases from bats still exists. However, certain physiological and ecological parameters have been linked to specific transmission patterns, and more definite proofs are awaited for establishing these connections.
... The zoonotically potential TADs have threatened global public health due to their capability to spread rapidly. In recent past highly pathogenic avian influenza (HPAI), bovine spongiform encephalopathy (BSE), West Nile fever, Rift Valley fever, severe acute respiratory syndrome (SARS) Coronavirus, Hendra virus, Nipah virus, Ebola virus, Zika virus and Crimean Congo haemorrhagic Fever (CCHF) and many more adversely affected animal and human health (Malik and Dhama, 2015;Munjal et al., 2017;Singh et al., 2017;Singh et al., 2019). In 1977, Rift valley fever (RVF) affected 2,00,000 humans with 600 deaths in Egypt (Helmy et al., 2017). ...
Transboundary animal diseases (TADs) are a serious threat to food security and human health. North-East India shares international borders with five countries that include China, Bangladesh, Myanmar, Nepal and Bhutan. Geographical locations and climatic conditions of North East India with respect to other parts of India are different. Although this part of the country is well known for its natural beauty, customs and unique cultures but the porous international borders made it highly prone to TADs. The porcine reproductive and respiratory syndrome (PRRS) in pigs is believed to be entered in Mizoram, India from Myanmar. The recent outbreaks of African swine fever (ASF) in India are also initiated in Arunachal Pradesh and Assam and originated from China. The vulnerability of this region to be a potential entry point for TADs, which might have potential zoonotic value, warrants a critical review of the border situation of NER India. The current review emphasizes on awareness about TADs and the factors responsible for their emergence.