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Transmission of the Nipah virus. 1. Fruit bats acts as natural reservoir of Nipah viruses. Fruit bats with NiV feeds on date palm sap. Virus can survive in solutions that are rich in sugar, viz., fruit pulp. 2. Virus transmitted to human through the consumption of date palm sap. 3. Fruit bats of Pteropus spp. which are NiV reservoirs visited such fruit trees and got opportunity to naturally spill the drop containing virus in the farm to contaminate the farm soil and fruits. 4. Contaminated fruits are consumed by pigs and other animals. Pigs act as intermediate as well as amplifying host. Combination of close surroundings of fruiting trees, fruits-like date palm, fruit bats, pigs and human altogether form the basis of emergence and spread of new deadly zoonotic virus infection like Nipah. 5. Pork meat infected with NiV are exported to other parts. 6. Consumption of infected pork can act as a source of infection to human. 7. Close contact with NiV affected human can lead to spread of NiV to other persons.
Source publication
Nipah (Nee-pa) viral disease is a zoonotic infection caused by Nipah virus (NiV), a paramyxovirus belonging to the genus Henipavirus of the family Paramyxoviridae. It is a biosafety level-4 pathogen, which is transmitted by specific types of fruit bats, mainly Pteropus spp. which are natural reservoir host. The disease was reported for the first ti...
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Background
Nipah virus (NiV) is an emerging zoonotic paramyxovirus that causes severe encephalitis and respiratory disease with a high mortality rate in humans. During large outbreaks of the viral disease, serological testing of serum samples could be a useful diagnostic tool, which could provide information on not only the diagnosis of NiV disease...
Citations
... NiV's intensified pathogenicity is linked to its replication and fusion strategies involving ephrin receptors. Henipaviruses also encode multiple accessory proteins aiding in evading host immune responses [17,18]. ...
... Human-to-human transmission of NiV was identified in India in 2001, and in Bangladesh, where palm sap is consumed, frequent NiV infections and person-to-person transmission have occurred. Despite preventive measures such as "bamboo skirts or lime on date palm trees" to limit bat access to sap, ongoing efforts are necessary to prevent NiV transmission and address potential risks associated with bat-to-human transmission through date palm sap [17]. ...
... Secondary human-to-human transmission occurred during outbreaks, with NiV shedding from bats initiating epidemics through person-toperson transmission. Patient handling and contact with infected secretions are identified as risk factors [17]. ...
Background and Aims
The World Health Organization (WHO) recognized the potential for a severe international epidemic and introduced the term “Disease X” to classify pathogens that not yet identified. The Nipah virus (NiV) is highly dangerous due to its zoonotic nature, high mortality rate, and ability to cause severe clinical symptoms in humans. In this review, we gather the latest information on the NiV and its potential to become a significant candidate for Disease X.
Methods
We performed a thorough review of articles published in PubMed, Scopus, and Google Scholar using appropriate MeSH terms and keywords. Studies reported NiV infection were considered for this review.
Results
The NiV exhibits different epidemiological patterns in different countries that calls for customized prevention and control strategies. Genetic analysis highlights NiV's ability to mutate that alters possible treatment options. Transmission typically involves bats as the primary reservoir, with humans becoming infected either through intermediate hosts or food. This shows NiV's complex nature, including its ability to reach the central nervous system through the olfactory nerve. Promising treatment options, such as monoclonal antibodies, antivirals, and ongoing vaccine research, provide hope. However, the virus's adaptability, human‐to‐human transmission, and the lack of specific antiviral therapy raise concerns about its potential to cause a global pandemic. The interconnection between animals, humans, and the environment stresses the need for a One Health approach to tackle emerging infectious disease by NiV.
Conclusion
Global collaboration, surveillance, and research investments are imperative for the preparation of future pandemics. The ongoing COVID‐19 challenges underscoring the critical need for sustained scientific endeavors, global leadership, and recognition of the prominence of NiV as a candidate for the potential Disease X.
... One notable example is the outbreak of Nipah virus in Malaysia in 1998-1999. The intensive pig farming practices in close proximity to fruit orchards frequented by bats, facilitated the spillover of the virus from bats to pigs and subsequently to humans [72][73][74]. The outbreak resulted in over 100 human deaths and the culling of over a million pigs, causing significant economic losses. ...
Zoonotic spillover events pose a significant and growing threat to global health. By focusing on preventing these cross-species transmissions, we can significantly mitigate pandemic risks. This review aims to analyze the mechanisms of zoonotic spillover events, identify key risk factors, and propose evidence-based prevention strategies to reduce future pandemic threats. Through a comprehensive literature review and analysis of major databases including PubMed, Web of Science, and Scopus from 1960–2024, we examined documented spillover events, their outcomes, and intervention strategies. This article emphasizes that targeting the root cause—the spillover event itself—is key to averting future pandemics. By analyzing historical and contemporary outbreaks, we extract crucial insights into the dynamics of zoonotic transmission. Factors underlying these events include increased human–animal contact due to habitat encroachment, agricultural intensification, and wildlife trade. Climate change, global travel, and inadequate healthcare infrastructure exacerbate risks. The diversity of potential viral reservoirs and rapid viral evolution present major challenges for prediction and prevention. Solutions include enhancing surveillance of wildlife populations, improving biosecurity measures, investing in diagnostic capabilities, and promoting sustainable wildlife management. A “One Health” approach integrating human, animal, and environmental health is crucial. Predictive modelling, international cooperation, and public education are key strategies. Developing pre-exposure prophylactics and post-exposure treatments is essential for mitigating outbreaks. While obstacles remain, advances in genomics and ecological modelling offer hope. A proactive, comprehensive approach addressing the root causes of spillover events is vital for safeguarding global health against future pandemics.
... Nipah virus (NiV) is a novel zoonotic virus belonging to the subfamily Paramyxovirinae of the Paramyxoviridae family in the genus Henipavirus [1]. NiV was first discovered in domestic pigs in Malaysia and Singapore in 1998 and 1999 [2], after which more than 1 million pigs were destroyed to control its spread. Fruit bats have been found to be the primary carriers of NiV and have played a role in NiV outbreaks across various regions worldwide [3]. ...
... NiV infection is highly lethal in humans (40%-75%) [2], is zoonotic, and can be transmitted from person to person, making the WHO [19] classify it as a priority pathogen on their research and development (R&D) blueprint list, signifying an imperative requirement for accelerated research and development initiatives concentrated on NiV. Given the absence of a vaccine or therapeutic agent approved for use in humans and other animals [26], the early identification of NiV through diagnostic techniques is essential for the timely treatment of patients and the prevention of outbreaks. ...
Nipah virus (NiV) is an emerging bat-borne zoonotic virus that can be transmitted to humans and other animals through infected bats or contaminated foods. The disease is highly lethal in humans (40%–75%) and has the potential for human-to-human transmission. Currently, there are no approved treatments or vaccines for NiV infection in humans or animals. Consequently, there is a pressing need for a highly sensitive, precise, and visually detectable assay to enable early intervention and mitigate the transmission of NiV infection. Here, we report a single-copy sensitive, field-deployable, one-pot visual reverse transcription-recombinase polymerase amplification (RT-RPA)-clustered regularly interspaced short palindromic repeat (CRISPR)/CRISPR associate system (Cas)12 for the detection of NiV. The assay works by targeting the N gene of NiV, and the results are directly visible to the naked eye. The assay has demonstrated the ability to detect as few as 5.5 copies/μl of positive plasmids or 5.5 × 10¹ copies/μl of RNA transcripts when reacted at constant temperature for 40 min. It showed high specificity for NiV and had no cross-reaction with other pathogens, including rabies virus (RABV), Japanese encephalitis virus (JEV), herpes simplex virus type 1 (HSV-1), Hendra virus (HeV), and Streptococcus suis (S. suis), that can cause clinical symptoms similar to those of NiV infection. Moreover, this assay had a 100% coincidence rate with the reverse transcription quantitative polymerase chain reaction (RT-qPCR) method recommended by the World Organization for Animal Health (WOAH) for the detection of simulated clinical samples, indicating that it has great potential as an ultrasensitive, simple, and portable novel assay for the onsite diagnosis of NiV infection.
... The sporadic nature of outbreaks limits the commercial viability of vaccines against the virus [3]. However, despite its infrequent outbreaks, the virus remains a significant threat to public health because of its high fatality rate [1,4]. Various vaccines against NiV have been extensively explored [5,6]; and among the promising platforms is messenger RNA (mRNA) vaccines. ...
... In this study, the selection of HTL epitopes was limited to those capable of inducing at least one cytokine deemed essential for NiV control. The previous studies by Singh et al. [4] and Elvert et al. [81] on NiV infection in experimental animal models have revealed the induction of various cytokines in specific tissues. For instance, IL1α, IL6, IL8, granulocyte-colony stimulating factor, and the C-X-C motif chemokine 10 are induced in the airway epithelium, while TNFα and IL1β are induced in the central nervous system [4]. ...
... The previous studies by Singh et al. [4] and Elvert et al. [81] on NiV infection in experimental animal models have revealed the induction of various cytokines in specific tissues. For instance, IL1α, IL6, IL8, granulocyte-colony stimulating factor, and the C-X-C motif chemokine 10 are induced in the airway epithelium, while TNFα and IL1β are induced in the central nervous system [4]. Furthermore, a significant level of IFNγ has been observed during in vitro infection of human and swine bronchial epithelial cells [81]. ...
Background and Aim: Nipah virus (NiV) poses a threat to human and animal health, particularly swine, which serve as primary vectors for human transmission. Despite its severe risks, no NiV vaccine currently exists for humans or animal hosts; thus, innovative vaccine development approaches that address cross-species transmission are required. This study was computationally designed to evaluate a multi-epitope messenger RNA (mRNA) vaccine targeting NiV for human and swine immunization. Materials and Methods: B and T lymphocyte epitopes were identified from NiV structural proteins using multiple epitope prediction tools. All epitopes were linked to form a multi-epitope construct, and various adjuvant combinations were analyzed for physicochemical properties and immune simulation. Molecular docking and dynamics were employed to visualize the construct’s interaction with a host immune receptor. Signal peptides were added to the construct, and mRNA sequences were generated using LinearDesign. The minimum free energies (MFEs) and codon adaptation indices (CAI) were used to select the final mRNA sequence of the vaccine construct. Results: Computational tools predicted 10 epitopes within NiV structural proteins that can be recognized by human and swine immune receptors. The construct with β-defensin 2 adjuvant was selected as the final immunogenic region after showing favorable immunogenicity profiles and physicochemical properties. The final vaccine sequence had higher MFE and CAI compared to the BioNTech/Pfizer BNT162b2 and Moderna mRNA-1273 vaccines. Conclusion: The multi-epitope mRNA vaccine designed in this study shows promising results as a potential NiV vaccine candidate. Further in vivo and in vitro studies are required to confirm the efficacy. Keywords: computational design, cross-species immunization, messenger RNA vaccine, multi-epitope, Nipah virus.
... 10 For instance, the mRNA platform, successfully used for COVID-19 vaccines, can now be exploited for other zoonotic threats, such as rabies and Nipah viruses. 204,205 Similarly, viral vector vaccines use a harmless virus to deliver genetic material obtained from a pathogen, and these have shown promise in developing a Zika virus vaccine. 206 Lastly, SVs, which contain only necessary antigens and lack the whole infectious agent, are being developed for zoonotic diseases like Lyme disease. ...
... 153 It was first discovered in 1998 in the village of Sungai Nipah in Malaysia after many pigs began dying from respiratory and neurological disease, accompanied by an outbreak of acute encephalitis in surrounding human populations. 154 Nipah virus (NiV) then spread to Singapore in early 1999 after pigs were imported from Malaysia. 153 Since then, there have been outbreaks in Malaysia, Bangladesh, and India, with nearly annual outbreaks in Bangladesh since 2001. ...
... An epidemiologic study from the 2018 Kerala outbreak showed that 87% of cases showed respiratory symptoms with a fatality of 91%. 153,154 Life Cycle and Animal Reservoir ...
... G protein aids with attachment to host cell receptors while the F protein allows fusion of virus to host. 154 In addition, viruses can target the DNA-damage response pathway to increase Nipah virus production as well as encode accessory proteins to avoid immune detection. 154,155 Pteropus fruit bats are the natural reservoir for the disease. ...
Infectious diseases may lead to ocular complications including uveitis, an ocular inflammatory condition with potentially sight-threatening sequelae, and conjunctivitis, inflammation of the conjunctiva. Emerging infectious pathogens with known ocular findings include Ebola virus, Zika virus, Avian influenza virus, Nipah virus, severe acute respiratory syndrome coronaviruses, and Dengue virus. Re-emerging pathogens with ocular findings include Toxoplasma gondii and Plasmodium species that lead to malaria. The concept of One Health involves a collaborative and interdisciplinary approach to achieve optimal health outcomes by combining human, animal, and environmental health factors. This approach examines the interconnected and often complex human-pathogen-intermediate host interactions in infectious diseases that may also result in ocular disease, including uveitis and conjunctivitis. Through a comprehensive review of the literature, we review the ophthalmic findings of emerging infectious diseases, pathogenesis, and One Health perspectives that provide further insight into the disease state. While eye care providers and vision researchers may often focus on key local aspects of disease process and management, additional perspective on host-pathogen-reservoir life cycles and transmission considerations, including environmental factors, may offer greater insight to improve outcomes for affected individuals and stakeholders.
... The Nipah virus is a type of paramyxovirus that belongs to the Henipavirus genus of the Paramyxoviridae family, which is under the Paramyxovirinae subfamily and Mononegavirales order. The Pteropus fruit bat serves as the reservoir host for NiV, and the virus has a half-life of 18 h within the bats' urine [7]. ...
... Pigs, that get infected with the Nipah virus, act as an intermediate host. Furthermore, humans can also become hosts for the Nipah virus [7,[9][10][11]. depicts the geographical distribution of Nipah virus and Pteropus spp [12]. ...
... These occurrences were near the Nipah belt in Bangladesh [9,19]. In 2018, a separate outbreak emerged in the Kozhikode district in northern Kerala, significantly distant from West Bengal [7]. The outbreak commenced on May 2, 2018, when a 27-year-old man was hospitalized due to fever and myalgia [10]. ...
The Nipah Virus (NiV) was discovered in 1999 in the Sungai Nipah region of Malaysia. It is one of many emerging bat-borne zoonotic viruses that threaten global health security. The Pteropus fruit bats are identified as the natural reservoirs for the virus. NiV belongs to the family of Paramyxoviridae and is mostly present in locations surrounded by water, vegetation, and controlled or protected religious areas. To date, cases of NiV have been identified in Southeast Asian regions, with the highest number of cases in Bangladesh, totalling 305, with a fatality rate of 65%. The highest mortality has been observed in the Indian region, at 73%. NiV is an emerging zoonotic disease that needs to be focused on. The median incubation period is 9.5 days and the clinical features primarily lead to either progressive encephalitis or Acute Respiratory Distress Syndrome.
The diagnosis is conducted in Bio-safety level 3 or level 4 labs through Polymerase chain reaction. Human nasal swabs, throat swabs, urine, blood, and cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) are collected for diagnostic purposes. At present, there is no approved treatment or vaccine for the prevention of the disease. However, research on a vaccine against NiV is being investigated, and a subunit vaccine with NiV-G protein is found to produce potential efficacy. An outbreak in Kerala, a state in India, led to the implementation of an action plan involving lead agencies to combat the sudden surge of the virus. In the current scenario, appropriate preventive strategies are more effective in controlling the virus. However, emphasis should be placed on affordable and efficient diagnostic methods, treatment options, and vaccines to better manage the virus, considering the highest fatality caused by the virus.
... The central nervous system (CNS) is primarily invaded hematogenously, although evidence suggests direct invasion via olfactory nerves is possible. [30] The clinical features of NiV infection are attributable to its involvement in the failure of multiple organs like lungs, kidneys, spleen, and brain due to vasculitis, thrombosis, and necrosis as a result of syncytia formation which is characterized by the expression of viral glycoproteins on the infected cell surfaces. Syncytia formation leads to multinucleated giant cell formation, contributing highly to the cytopathic effects observed during infection. ...
Background
First identified in Malaysia in 1998, the Nipah virus is a paramyxovirus related to the Hendra virus. The clinical manifestation can vary from a silent infection to a life-threatening encephalitis. The World Health Organization (WHO) has documented 25 outbreaks in South Asia, resulting in 429 cases and 307 deaths to date. Currently, there are no approved treatments for the deadly Nipah virus infection, which is a serious threat to public health worldwide. Consequently, a review was conducted to examine the geographic distribution of the Nipah virus, mortality, transmission pathways, and available methods for diagnosis and treatment.
Methods
PubMed, Scopus, Web of Science, and Google Scholar servers were used to conduct a systematic search in compliance with the PRISMA guidelines. The results were tabulated and analyzed.
Results
A total of 12 studies (7 case series and 5 case reports) were included in the final analysis, and 92 cases were analyzed. The most frequent symptoms were fever (80%), myalgia (47%), headache (47%), shortness of breath/acute respiratory distress syndrome (n = 44.1%), altered sensorium (44.1%), and vomiting (42.6%). The most commonly used diagnostic test was RT-PCR (45.5%). The most common route of transmission reported is direct human contact with the infected patients. Treatment modalities include interventional procedures, antiviral drugs, and symptomatic treatment. The most common complications were seizures (39.2%) and altered sensorium (35.7%). The mortality rate was 73.9%.
Conclusion
It is crucial to emphasize the importance of early Nipah virus infection diagnosis and treatment to prevent life-threatening consequences.
... In humans, the infection rapidly progresses to severe illness, leading to significant respiratory complications and profound encephalitis. 11 The lack of antibodies or effective therapeutics to combat this illness underscores a critical need, driving scientists worldwide to pursue the development of a robust NiV vaccination and therapy strategy. ...
Background: Nipah virus is a deadly infectious virus that was first isolated and identified from Malaysia. Since then, a number of Nipah virus outbreaks have been reported from Bangladesh and India. Transmission of the disease occurs through Pteropus genus fruit bats. The case fatality rate of this infection is very high when compared with other viral zoonoses. At present, there are no approved vaccines or drugs available to prevent or treat this infection. A number of studies are ongoing to develop an efficient vaccine candidate to combat this deadly virus. The majority of them concentrate on the structural and non-structural proteins, which are the main targets of neutralizing antibodies. Materials and Methods: Here, we analyzed the genome sequence identity of two Nipah virus strains, Indian and Malaysian, and also the amino acid identity between the two structural proteins (Attachment glycoprotein G and Fusion protein F) and one non-structural protein (W protein) of those two strains. Results and Discussion: It was found that there is a considerable amount of nucleotide sequence homology between the initial strain that originated from Malaysia and the strain that is now found in India. Furthermore, the Structural and Non-structural proteins of these two strains exhibit a high degree of similarity. Conclusion: Hence, a vaccine candidate designed using either NiV M or NiV B can be effectively used as a potent vaccine.
... Nipah virus (NiV) is a widely prevalent zoonotic virus with high mortality rates,, that belongs to the genus Henipavirus of the Paramyxoviridae family [1]. It is a spherical enveloped, single-stranded, negative-sense RNA virus with a size of approximately 150 nm and a full genome length of approximately 18.2 kb [2]. NiV was first identified in pigs in Malaysia in 1998, and infections by this virus have been discovered in recent years [3,4]. ...
... The NiV RNA genome encodes for six structural proteins: the fusion protein (F), attachment protein (G), matrix protein (M), nucleocapsid protein (N), large polymerase (L), and phosphoprotein (P) [2]. The N gene can be efficiently expressed and is highly conserved, making its use in the diagnosis and epidemiological investigation of NiV infection highly feasible. ...
Background
Nipah virus (NiV) is a zoonotic pathogen that poses a significant threat because of its wide host range, multiple transmission modes, high transmissibility, and high mortality rates, affecting both human health and animal husbandry. In this study, we developed a one-step reverse transcription droplet digital PCR (RT-ddPCR) assay that targets the N gene of NiV.
Results
Our RT-ddPCR assay exhibited remarkable sensitivity, with a lower limit of detection of 6.91 copies/reaction. Importantly, it displayed no cross-reactivity with the other 13 common viruses and consistently delivered reliable results with a coefficient of variation below 10% across different concentrations. To validate the effectiveness of our RT-ddPCR assay, we detected 75 NiV armored RNA virus samples, mimicking real-world conditions, and negative control samples, and the RT-ddPCR results perfectly matched the simulated results. Furthermore, compared with a standard quantitative real-time PCR (qPCR) assay, our RT-ddPCR assay demonstrated greater stability when handling complex matrices with low viral loads.
Conclusions
These findings show that our NiV RT-ddPCR assay is exceptionally sensitive and provides a robust tool for quantitatively detecting NiV, particularly in stimulated field samples with low viral loads or complex matrices. This advancement has significant implications for early NiV monitoring, safeguarding human health and safety, and advancing animal husbandry practices.
