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To overcome the spectrum scarcity issues, the citizens broadband radio service (CBRS) presents a centralized spectrum management solution. The efficiency of spectrum utilization could be further improved by introducing spectrum trading. Blockchain-based spectrum trading has been considered as a decentralized, flexible, and secure approach. However,...
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... this article, we design the basic blockchain-based spectrum trading model for the CBRS based on the underlying technologies of the Ethereum blockchain. We attempt to introduce the background technologies of blockchain-based spectrum trading mechanisms from the perspective of transaction processing. As shown in Fig. 1, spectrum transaction processing procedures on blockchain include transaction propagation, transaction queueing, block generation, block propagation, and transaction validation. Considering the different capability and requirement of devices (e.g., different hashrate), CBSDs are divided into 2 roles, which are clients and miners, ...
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... we simulate the satisfaction of all CBSDs in Fig. 10 to prove the performance of the weight-based transaction selection method. The satisfaction of CBSDs increased by about 14% by the proposed method, which represents that our approach allows CBSDs to get more resources in less time. The weight-based transaction selection method helps to achieve fairness of transactions in different ...
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... simulation scenario of cross-chain-based spectrum trading mechanism is shown in Fig. 4, there are 100 CBSDs belonging to 2 CxGs. feature-based fee-based FCFS feature-based without adjustment feature-based without weight As is shown in Fig. 11, we compare the proposed mechanism with a single blockchain method and cross-chain without decision blockchain. The simulation result shows that our method can effectively improve the network throughput by up to 24.1%. The reason for improving network throughput is shown in Fig. 12. It is because the effective transaction quantity ...
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... without adjustment feature-based without weight As is shown in Fig. 11, we compare the proposed mechanism with a single blockchain method and cross-chain without decision blockchain. The simulation result shows that our method can effectively improve the network throughput by up to 24.1%. The reason for improving network throughput is shown in Fig. 12. It is because the effective transaction quantity (i.e., the number of transactions which are successfully processed) achieves a significant increase. Compared with the way of SAS processing cross-chain transactions, the spectrum trading scheme based on "coexistence-decision" architecture is more time-efficient because it does not need ...
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... trading scheme based on "coexistence-decision" architecture is more time-efficient because it does not need to wait for the next CPAS. Compared with the spectrum trading scheme based on single-blockchain, the multi-blockchain architecture is more scalable because transactions are processed in parallel. The number of effective transactions in Fig. 12 tends to increase first and then decrease. Because when there are few EUDs, CBSDs have the capacity to serve them. However, when there are too many EUDs, the available spectrum to be traded will correspondingly decrease. Moreover, the effect of preprocessing is evaluated by comparing the aggregated interference to the protection point ...
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... serve them. However, when there are too many EUDs, the available spectrum to be traded will correspondingly decrease. Moreover, the effect of preprocessing is evaluated by comparing the aggregated interference to the protection point in different methods. While the queuing mechanism is not considered in inter-CxG spectrum trading, it is shown in Fig. 13 that the aggregated interference can be reduced by nearly 1.2 dB with the preprocessing. It is because the spectrum in co-channel frequency range of incumbents are traded to the CBSDs with longer distance to the protection point. ...
Citations
... In addition, in [16], a blockchain-based queuing mechanism for intra-coexisting group (CxG) trading is proposed. Leveraging blockchain decentralization and smart contracts for spectrum transactions reduces aggregated interference to incumbents and improves transaction processing efficiency. ...
... For example, permissionless blockchains can suffer from 51% attack and may consume a huge amount of resources. With the growth of the network, scalability becomes a major challenge for its application in spectrum sharing, we have proposed a multiblockchain scheme to solve this issue in [12]. ...
... Architectural changes and innovative methods are combined in various examples. Cheng et al. [113] propose a blockchain-based spectrum trading mechanism for CBRS. Their approach involves a queuing mechanism and a multiple blockchain architecture with cross-chain spectrum trading to improve scalability and efficiency in intra-coexistence group (CxG) trading, showcasing the integration of both architectural enhancements and performance improvements. ...
... In the context of DSM, Ethereum-based SCs have been instrumental in the development of spectrum auctioning and trading platforms. These platforms, leveraging the autonomy and security features of SCs, facilitate trading in CBRS band [113]. Additionally, for Heterogeneous Spacecraft Networks, Ethereum-based SCs power spectrum auctioning systems [80], while a consortium model based on Ethereum SCs and DSS is implemented in Hyperledger Fabric for multioperator scenarios [136]. ...
... Architectural changes involving hierarchy and clustering nodes using ML techniques are suggested by Hu et al. [111], while Ling et al. recommend multi-sided platforms [112]. Combining these architectural changes with improved processing speeds using queuing mechanisms is explored by Cheng et al. [113]. ...
The rapid increase in mobile users, the IoT, and data-hungry applications have brought forth unprecedented demand on the spectrum, which is scarce; on top of that, the existing static spectrum allocation schemes have resulted in a heavily underutilized spectrum which can be mitigated with a Dynamic Spectrum Access (DSA) scheme with unlicensed users gaining access to the idle spectrum bands of licensed spectrum users opportunistically. Such a DSA and Dynamic Spectrum Management (DSM) scheme would significantly increase spectral efficiency while facilitating new services and applications beyond 5G (B5G) networks. Even with access to new spectrum bands like terahertz (THz) and Visible light communication and enabling technologies such as Software Defined Networks (SDN) and Cognitive Radio (CR), implementing a fully realized DSM requires rapid sensing, coordination, and management, and sharing of idle spectrum bands in a fair manner while preserving the security and privacy aspects, limiting interferences. With their decentralized, immutable nature, blockchains promise the execution of spectrum access and sharing in a fully transparent, fair manner while preserving privacy and security. Furthermore, blockchain-based Smart Contracts (SCs) allow automation of DSM, cryptocurrencies, and tokens to facilitate the trading of spectrum and related resources. In addition to that, blockchains act as an interface for integrating AI and Machine Learning (ML) techniques into DSM, which provides a certain level of intelligence to the underlying architecture. Although several attempts have been carried out to analyze the research gaps in DSM, a comprehensive analysis addressing the blockchains as the primary solution to address DSM has not been carried out. In this survey, we address the potential of a blockchain-based approach toward realizing a decentralized DSM while presenting future directives to improve the use of blockchains for DSM.
... Additionally, [16] presented a techno-economic analysis of spectrum sharing using blockchain and smart contracts, proposing a model for swapping access rights within a well-known band and estimating usage costs, which transaction fees will be a basis of comparison for the costs associated with our system. Furthermore, [26] introduced a multi-blockchain scheme for Dynamic Spectrum Sharing (DSS) in the Citizens Broadband Radio Service (CBRS) system, addressing scalability and interference issues through a multi-blockchain architecture and cross-chain mechanism that help to address the issues for our BSM-6G model. ...
The radio frequency spectrum serves as a fundamental resource for wireless communication, encompassing various frequency bands allocated for diverse services and applications. Dynamic spectrum management (DSM) is essential to optimise the utilisation of this limited and valuable natural resource, with the aim of improving performance and adapting to changing wireless communication demands. Traditional static spectrum allocation methods have shown inefficiencies, leading to spectrum scarcity and under-utilisation. To address these challenges, the integration of blockchain and Cognitive Radio (CR) technologies has emerged as a promising approach. Blockchain, with its decentralised and secure attributes, can improve transparency and trust in spectrum allocation processes, while CR enables intelligent spectrum sensing and allocation to maximise utilisation. However, this promising approach comes with its own critical challenges, especially when dealing with the 6th Generation (6G) mobile communication. These challenges are related to the fact that the blockchain ecosystem needs to be interoperable and scalable enough to be compatible with the 6G high-demand and substantial resources. Specifically, integrating blockchain with CR requires efficient interoperability techniques where blockchain can easily and effectively interact with the CR platforms as well as radio spectrum environments. Furthermore, the spectrum management system over 6G networks needs to be designed in a way where massive 6G resources can be accommodated and managed without having any service performance degradation. This paper introduces a novel radio spectrum management model in 6G networks, named as BSM-6G, which integrates blockchain technology with CR where interoperability is preserved and scalability is maximised. Specifically, the proposed BSM-6G model merges blockchain’s transparent record keeping with CR’s intelligent spectrum management capabilities. To overcome the interoperability issue, BSM-6G provides an interoperable blockchain Oracle approach which facilitates the real-time interaction among the blockchain platform, the CR, and any data sources off-chain. This paper details all the technical and procedural challenges when implementing the proposed interoperability Oracle approach. To address the scalability challenge, BSM-6G utilizes the Proof-of-History (PoH) consensus protocol to align with the requirements of DSM in advanced networks like Beyond 5th Generation (B5G) and 6G. Evaluation results indicate that BSM-6G offers viable and less complex blockchain Oracle integration architecture measured by the technical implementation of BSM-6G, as well as low interoperability cost measured by transaction response time and transaction fee cost. Compared to state-of-the-art spectrum-based blockchain systems, BSM-6G shows a high scalable DSM-based blockchain in 6G networks measured by transactions per second (TPS).
... Given that CRN's guiding principles prohibit the sharing of such information, this conduct is a violation of these standards. Work in [25] created a CRN-specific spectrumaware routing technique. Although the protocol may calculate the ideal path for each node based on network-wide information, cognitive radio ad-hoc systems are incompatible with it. ...
Cognitive Radio Ad-hoc Networks (CRAHNs) are under constant attacks from compromised primary & secondary nodes. These attacks focus on bandwidth manipulation, internal configuration manipulation, and selective spoofing, which can disturb the normal working of the CRAHNs. Researchers propose various security models to mitigate these attacks, each with limitations. Most of these models have higher complexity, while others cannot be used to mitigate multiple attack types. To overcome these issues while maintaining higher security and Quality of Service (QoS) under attacks, this text proposes a design of a novel blockchain-based security model for improving attack resilience in CRAHNs. The model initially collects multiple information sets from different cognitive radio controllers and creates active & redundant miners for the storage of these sets. The number of active & redundant miners is decided via a Mayfly Optimizer (MO) Model, which assists in improving resource utilization while reducing deployment costs. Cognitive rules and configurations are stored on these nodes and updated via a secure blockchain verification. Due to this, the proposed model demonstrated significant improvements in cognitive radio communications across various metrics, even under different attack scenarios. It reduced communication delay by up to 18.5%, increased communication throughput by up to 19.5%, and improved the Packet Delivery Ratio (PDR) by up to 19.4% when compared with existing models such as SRC [2], Prob Less [4], and DDQL [13]. Additionally, the model achieved energy savings of up to 12.5%. These enhancements were made possible by the optimized selection of miner nodes, enabling quicker mining for high-speed communication, low-energy mining tasks for prolonged use, and high-performance mining for consistency. The results affirm the model’s suitability for various real-time cognitive radio scenarios. Due to the integration of the MO Model, the CRAHN showcases better communication speed, lower energy consumption, higher throughput, and higher packet delivery performance when compared with existing methods under real-time scenarios.
... Since CRN allocates spectrum resources dynamically, efficient resource allocation algorithms are essential to ensure that users get the spectrum resources they need. Blockchain technology can further complicate resource allocation by introducing additional constraints, such as the need for consensus [4][5]. ...
The rapid growth of wireless communication technologies has led to an exponential increase in the demand for spectrum resources. Spectrum management, the process of allocation and control of limited radio frequency spectrum, is critical to the efficient and equitable distribution of this scarce resource. However, traditional methods of spectrum management face many problems, including inefficiency, lack of transparency and proneness to fraud. In recent years, blockchain technology has emerged as a potential solution to these problems. The emergence of smart contracts using blockchain technology has the potential to revolutionize spectrum trading and improve spectrum management practices. This paper explores the application of blockchain in spectrum management and discusses its potential to revolutionize the way spectrum resources are allocated and managed. Also, the concept of smart contracts and their application in spectrum trading are studied. It discusses the benefits of using smart contracts for transparent and efficient spectrum transactions, implementation challenges, and potential solutions. Through the use of smart contracts, a secure and decentralized market for spectrum resources can be created, facilitating dynamic and flexible allocation of spectrum.
... We offer an end-user device and (bulk) aggregator smart contract model that allows spectrum and bandwidth sharing beyond traditional spectrum trading restricted to transactions between MNOs [3][4][5]12]. ...
We propose a new way to share licensed spectrum bandwidth capacity in mobile networks between operators, service providers and end-users using blockchain-based smart contracts. We discuss the foundational building blocks in the contract as well as various extensions to support more advanced features such as bulk purchases, and future reservations. Furthermore, we demonstrate how the system can be implemented with an open-source, permissioned enterprise blockchain, Hyperledger Sawtooth. We show that our smart contract implementation can improve blockchain transaction performance, by approximately four orders of magnitude compared to serial transactions and one order of magnitude compared to parallel transactions, by using PKI-driven bulk purchases of mobile access grants, paving the way for fully automated, efficient, and fine-grained roaming agreements. We conclude with a discussion of lessons learned from two end-to-end use cases we implemented to validate our distributed ledger design.
... C-band (3.55-3.7GHz) used by naval radars, can be seen as one of the key frequency bands to enable private 5GB cellular systems for the military [54], [55]. This is because these bands are highly underutilized as the radar occupancy varied only from 9% to 25% on an annual basis [56]. ...
Communication networks are becoming increasingly important in military operations, with task fields like time-critical targeting, covert special operations, command and control, training, and logistics, all relying heavily on the communication network and its services. On the other hand, commercial communication has dramatically transformed our society and the way we communicate. The newest network mode at present, 5G and beyond (5GB), is characterized by high speed, low latency, high reliability, and high communication density. Although the use of 5GB commercial networks for defense agencies can offer greater flexibility and efficiency, they also face a new challenge that requires high standards of network protection and harsh working conditions and environments. In this paper, we discuss the significance of communication networks in several potential military applications, particularly for warfare, training/drilling, logistics, and special mission-specific stations. We present the communication trends adopted in military applications. Then, we open up various 5GB key performance indexes and their use cases for the military communication systems. We also elaborate on unique challenges of the military communication networks that are unlikely to be resolved via commercial 5GB research. The various 5GB enabling technologies for military communication systems are discussed. Lastly, we present and analyze 5GB new radio for the private military communication under C-band. INDEX TERMS 5G and Beyond communication, Military communication, Private network, Tactile communications.
... The throughput of single-chain structure limits the performance of large-scale spectrum trading. We propose a multi-blockchain architecture and a corresponding cross-chain mechanism to improve the speed of spectrum trading [9]. As is mentioned before, spectrum transactions cause the change of interference relationships among incumbents and wireless devices. ...
Spectrum sharing has long been considered as method to improve spectrum resource utilization. Centralized geolocation database approach has been accepted globally for commercial applications. Recently blockchain has been considered as a platform to support spectrum sharing in a distributed manner. Like other commodities, spectrum or right of spectrum usage can be exchanged through blockchain. However, this leads to changes of the location where a particular frequency channel is utilized which brings potential interference. In this paper, we present the interference based consensus and smart contract for blockchain based spectrum sharing. We will also introduce the other aspects of blockchain such as cross train transaction, cross tier spectrum coordination and incentive mechanism that need to be studied for spectrum sharing applications.
... The throughput of single-chain structure limits the performance of large-scale spectrum trading. We propose a multi-blockchain architecture and a corresponding cross-chain mechanism to improve the speed of spectrum trading [9]. As is mentioned before, spectrum transactions cause the change of interference relationships among incumbents and wireless devices. ...
Spectrum sharing has long been considered as method to improve spectrum resource utilization. Centralized geolocation database approach has been accepted globally for commercial applications. Recently blockchain has been considered as a platform to support spectrum sharing in a distributed manner. Like other commodities, spectrum or right of spectrum usage can be exchanged through blockchain. However, this leads to changes of the location where a particular frequency channel is utilized which brings potential interference. In this paper, we present the interference-based consensus and smart contract for blockchain based spectrum sharing. We will also introduce the other aspects of blockchain such as cross-chain transaction， cross-tier spectrum coordination and incentive mechanism that need to be studied for spectrum sharing applications.
