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Tracks of satellite-tagged bar-tailed godwits on southward migration, with place names mentioned in the text. White/blue tracks represent L. l. menzbieri (white = breeding grounds to staging areas about the New Siberian Islands; light blue = staging grounds back to the Yellow Sea region; dark blue = Yellow Sea region to northwest Australia); red/gold tracks represent L. l. baueri (red = intra-Alaska movements; gold = the main leg from the Yukon-Kuskokwim Delta staging grounds to Australasia). Small circles along track lines represent positions calculated from Argos data. Dashed lines for baueri denote movements interpolated from resightings subsequent to transmitters going off air. YKD = Yukon-Kuskokwim Delta, KS = Kuskokwim Shoals. Map is a Plate Carrée projection.
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Migrating birds make the longest non‐stop endurance flights in the animal kingdom. Satellite technology is now providing direct evidence on the lengths and durations of these flights and associated staging episodes for individual birds. Using this technology, we compared the migration performance of two subspecies of bar‐tailed godwit Limosa lappon...
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... present data on 30 adult godwits tagged between 2006 and 2010 as they prepared for migration in New Zealand (12 birds) or northwest Australia (13 birds) or when breed- ing in Alaska (5 birds) (Table 1; Fig. 1 and 2 for all loca- tions). In New Zealand, birds were caught at the Firth of Th ames, North Island (37 ° 11 ′ S, 175 ° 19 ′ E) and Golden Bay, South Island (40 ° 38 ′ S, 172 ° 40 ′ E), and in Western Austra- lia at Roebuck Bay (17 ° 58 ′ S, 122 ° 19 ′ E). In Alaska, baueri were caught on breeding grounds on the Yukon-Kuskokwim Delta (YKD, ...
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... total of eight birds transmitting during the southward migration period departed Alaska 30 August -7 October and headed south across the Pacifi c Ocean through a corridor approximately 1500 km wide (Fig. 2). Th e easternmost bird passed within 200 km of the main Hawaiian Islands. Only one bird (E7) was tracked completely back to New Zealand, fl ying 11 690 km in 8.1 d (Table 2, Fig. 5). Four birds fl ew for 10 410 km (in 8.5 d) before landing on islands in the southern Pacifi c. Transmitters of three birds stopped report- ing in fl ight ...
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... marked at Roebuck Bay, Australia, departed north- bound from 6 to 16 April, about 3 weeks later than baueri from New Zealand. Menzbieri made non-stop fl ights to the All eight menzbieri that survived the summer with func- tional transmitters were tracked to the Yellow Sea on south- ward migration (Fig. 2), arriving between 13 and 29 July after fl ying 4070 km in 3.0 d (Table 2). Four birds moved an additional 880 350 km within the Yellow Sea region thereby increasing the average overall travel distance to post- breeding staging grounds for all menzbieri to 4510 km in 6.3 d. Birds remained in the Yellow Sea for 40.8 d (Table 3) before ...
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... overall travel distance to post- breeding staging grounds for all menzbieri to 4510 km in 6.3 d. Birds remained in the Yellow Sea for 40.8 d (Table 3) before continuing migration from 20 August to 7 September. Southbound tracks tended to be farther east than north- bound ones with birds fl ying in a 700-km-wide corridor spanning the Philippines (Fig. ...
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... spent an average of 38.4 d staging in the Yellow Sea (Table 3). Th ey left Asia from 18 to 27 May and migrated north across eastern Russia, northern Japan, and the Sea of Okhotsk, fl ying 4170 km in 2.4 d to breeding sites spanning 800 km of eastern Siberia (northern Yakutia) and northwest Chukotka (Table 2, Fig. 1). Two birds moved short distances within Russia (200 and 240 km), and travel distances were similar overall to fl ight distances (Table 2). ...
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... Alaska, Kuskokwim Shoals is a region of coastline on the southwest YKD (Fig. 2) where a series of sandy barrier islands provides safe roosting habitat adjacent to rich, pris- tine tidal fl ats upon which birds feed. All satellite-tagged baueri in this study used the ∼ 80-km-long stretch of coast centered on the Kuskokwim Shoals when fuelling for south- ward migration, as did all 16 birds from New Zealand tracked ...
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Citations
... The variability in these characteristics gives rise to a wide range of migratory patterns, which vary greatly in the time taken to migrate. Some species migrate non-stop to their wintering grounds (Battley et al. 2012), some species experience a 'fly-and-forage' strategy, where birds hunt during migration and reduce their stopover time (Strandberg and Alerstam 2007), some make long stops to refuel (Shimada et al. 2014). Research in this area has also examined the influence of external environmental factors such as wind, rain, temperature, and day length on bird migration, revealing how these factors can limit food availability and shape migration patterns (Liechti & Bruderer 1998;Alerstam, Hedenström & Åkesson 2003;Curk et al. 2020;Pokrovsky et al. 2021). ...
To conserve bird species threatened by climate change, it is important to understand how environmental factors affected by climate change, such as snow cover, impact their ranges. While this problem is fairly well understood for breeding areas, it remains poorly understood for non-breeding areas. In non-breeding areas, seasonal cycles can strongly influence the distribution of resources during winter. If birds adapt to such changes, they may result in seasonal and directional movement of birds within their non-breeding range. In this case, birds would experience a unique migration pattern - rapid migration between breeding and non-breeding habitats versus a slow migration pattern within their non-breeding range. Their non-breeding range would therefore be dynamic, with potentially important consequences for our understanding of population densities and non-breeding ranges.
Between 2013-2021, we tracked 43 adult Rough-legged buzzards with solar GPS-GSM loggers. We analyzed their behavior, determined whether the birds showed any directional return migrations during the non-breeding season, and evaluated the differences between the slow migration within their winter range and the quick migration between breeding and non-breeding areas. We also analyzed the vegetation cover of the areas crossed during quick and slow migrations and the role of snow cover in winter migrations.
Our findings revealed that after a quick fall migration through the taiga zone, Rough-legged buzzards continue to migrate during the non-breeding season, albeit at a slower pace across the wooded fields they select as habitat. They avoid complete snow cover and move to escape the progression of the snow cover line from northeast to southwest and back during the winter. As a consequence, Rough-legged buzzards have a dynamic winter range. Thus, the migration pattern of these birds comprises alternating quick and slow phases, resembling the foxtrot dance, which we have named the foxtrot migration pattern. Due to this pattern, their winter range displays a dynamic shift of the seasonal center of the population distribution over 1000 km towards the southwest and back throughout the winter.
Our study uncovered a novel bird migration pattern postulated to exist before but poorly understood. This foxtrot migration likely occurs in many migratory species inhabiting winter areas with pronounced seasonal cycles. Our findings have implications for conservation efforts in the Anthropocene, where environmental factors such as snow cover can change rapidly and have cascading effects on bird migration. We recommend presenting dynamic winter ranges in species descriptions and range maps so ecologists can use them to develop effective conservation strategies.
... Skeletal muscles are always in a state of tension, which suggests that the sympathetic nerves, which control the excitation state of skeletal muscles, maintain a dominant state in the autonomic nerves. The bar-tailed godwits tacked by GPS, a migratory bird that flies for 14 days without rest and sleep, flying from Alaska to the off-shore of New Zealand [28]. It is extremely difficult for humans, mammals, to run a marathon 24 hours a day, but birds have a physiological structure that allows them to maintain sympathetic excitation at all times. ...
... Whimbrels using the lower Delmarva staging site followed a consistent direction during departure and arrival. This finding is in agreement with numerous other studies that have examined the orientation of departure and arrival flights of shorebirds using major staging sites (e.g., Richardson 1979, Piersma et al. 1990, Battley et al. 2012, Tan et al. 2018. During both seasons, Whimbrels followed a southeast-northwest axis with a more easterly component during autumn departure. ...
The United States is pursuing a diversified energy portfolio that includes offshore wind with a focus on the Atlantic Outer Continental Shelf (OCS). The Western Atlantic Flyway (WAF) supports one of the largest near-shore movement corridors of birds in the world, including several shorebird species of high conservation concern. We used satellite transmitters to examine orientation of Whimbrels (Numenius phaeopus) crossing the OCS and their overlap with two wind energy leases. Birds using a migratory staging site along the Delmarva Peninsula in Virginia crossed the OCS along a southeast-northwest axis. A considerable percentage (42.9%) of tracks intersected with one of the two wind leases. The juxtaposition to the Delmarva Peninsula placed wind leases southeast of the peninsula within both the departure and arrival trajectories of Whimbrels. The satellite transmitters used in this study were not equipped with altitude sensors, so we do not know if birds crossed wind leases within the rotor swept zone. Several species of shorebirds, including hundreds of thousands of individuals, make trans-Atlantic flights from three major staging sites: Delaware Bay, the lower Delmarva Peninsula, and Georgia Bight. All of these sites have wind leases positioned to their southeast. One of the most effective strategies for minimizing conflicts between birds and potential hazards is to place hazards away from critical movement corridors. More information is needed about departure and arrival patterns of shorebirds that cross the OCS to inform future lease placement.
... Efficient flight has allowed birds to evolve diverse life-history strategies, including: annual long-distance migrations ( Fig. 4R) that may even span the globe (Battley et al., 2012); dependence on extremely low-density and ephemeral food sources in zones such as the desert and open ocean (Weimerskirch et al., 1993); foraging on fast-moving, aerial prey such as arthropods (Fig. 4Q) or other birds (Rosen et al., 1999); and non-cursorial feeding strategies (flying and swimming). Birds achieve powered flight and gliding through lift generated from the wings and tail (Maybury, Rayner & Couldrick, 2001). ...
The ability of feathers to perform many functions either simultaneously or at different times throughout the year or life of a bird is integral to the evolutionary history of birds. Many studies focus on single functions of feathers, but any given feather performs many functions over its lifetime. These functions necessarily interact with each other throughout the evolution and development of birds, so our knowledge of avian evolution is incomplete without understanding the multifunctionality of feathers, and how different functions may act synergistically or antagonistically during natural selection. Here, we review how feather functions interact with avian evolution, with a focus on recent technological and discovery‐based advances. By synthesising research into feather functions over hierarchical scales (pattern, arrangement, macrostructure, microstructure, nanostructure, molecules), we aim to provide a broad context for how the adaptability and multifunctionality of feathers have allowed birds to diversify into an astounding array of environments and life‐history strategies. We suggest that future research into avian evolution involving feather function should consider multiple aspects of a feather, including multiple functions, seasonal wear and renewal, and ecological or mechanical interactions. With this more holistic view, processes such as the evolution of avian coloration and flight can be understood in a broader and more nuanced context.
... Identifying migration routines and the stopover sites of shorebirds is critical for understanding their life cycle and for conservation management (Battley et al., 2012;Giunchi et al., 2019). Such a task is essential for the East Asian-Australasian Flyway (EAAF), which is the most species-rich flyway globally but also has the most species in decline due to the loss of natural wetlands over the past several decades (Kirby et al., 2008;Murray et al., 2014;Studds et al., 2017). ...
Pied Avocets (Recurvirostra avosetta) are common migratory shorebirds in the East Asian–Australasian Flyway. From 2019 to 2021, GPS/GSM transmitters were used to track 40 Pied Avocets nesting in northern Bohai Bay to identify annual routines and key stopover sites. On average, southward migration of Pied Avocets started on 23 October and arrived at wintering sites (mainly in the middle and lower reaches of the Yangtze River and coastal wetland) in southern China on 22 November; Northward migration started on 22 March with arrival at breeding sites on 7 April. Most avocets used the same breeding sites and wintering sites between years, with an average migration distance of 1124 km. There was no significant difference between sexes on the migration timing or distance in both northward and southward migration, except for the departure time from the wintering sites and winter distribution. The coastal wetland of Lianyungang in Jiangsu Province is a critical stopover site. Most individuals rely on Lianyungang during both northward and southward migration, indicating that species with short migration distances also heavily rely on a few stopover sites. However, Lianyungang lacks adequate protection and is facing many threats, including tidal flat loss. We strongly recommend that the coastal wetland of Lianyungang be designated as a protected area to effectively conserve the critical stopover site.
... At the opposite end of the migratory energetics continuum from income migrants are those animals that complete migration without feeding en route. Perhaps the most celebrated example is the bar-tailed godwit (Limosa lapponica), which completes a ~11,700 km migration from Alaska to New Zealand without interruption (Battley et al., 2012), but this strategy is seen in other shorebirds (Conklin et al., 2017;Gunnarsson & Guðmundsson, 2016;Whitfield et al., 1996), as well as some goose populations (Vissing et al., 2020). ...
... This difference is consistent with stronger selection for early arrival at the breeding grounds, such that a time minimisation strategy is followed (Alerstam & Lindström, 1990), whereas time pressures are eased for the post-breeding migration and an energy minimisation strategy is more favourable. Conversely, bartailed godwits may fly non-stop from their Alaskan breeding grounds to non-breeding sites in New Zealand but when migrating north to breed they make a lengthy detour, stopping on the Yellow Sea coast (Battley et al., 2012). It has been suggested that the prevailing winds of the Pacific Ocean mean that a clockwise circuit of the ocean basin may be more energy efficient when combined with a refuelling stopover in the Yellow Sea : prevailing winds explain highly indirect oceanic migration routes in seabirds (Felicísimo et al., 2008). ...
Animal migrations represent the regular movements of trillions of individuals. The scale of these movements has inspired human intrigue for millennia and has been intensively studied by biologists. This research has highlighted the diversity of migratory strategies seen across and within migratory taxa: while some migrants temporarily express phenotypes dedicated to travel, others show little or no phenotypic flexibility in association with migration. However, a vocabulary for describing these contrasting solutions to the performance trade‐offs inherent to the highly dynamic lifestyle of migrants (and strategies intermediate between these two extremes) is currently missing. We propose a taxon‐independent organising framework based on energetics, distinguishing between migrants that forage as they travel (income migrants) and those that fuel migration using energy acquired before departure (capital migrants). Not only does our capital:income continuum of migratory energetics account for the variable extent of phenotypic flexibility within and across migrant populations, but it also aligns with theoreticians’ treatment of migration and clarifies how migration impacts other phases of the life‐cycle. As such, it provides a unifying scale and common vacabulary for comparing the migratory strategies of divergent taxa.
... A similar pattern occurs in red knots 69 , although they do not exhibit any latitudinal differences in wing length and bill size. Based on current knowledge, we think latitudinal differences between migratory shorebirds in Australia are unlikely to be driven by conditions at the breeding grounds because northern and southern Australian shorebird populations breed within narrow latitudinal ranges 57,66,[68][69][70] . ...
Bergmann’s and Allen’s rules state that endotherms should be larger and have shorter appendages in cooler climates. However, the drivers of these rules are not clear. Both rules could be explained by adaptation for improved thermoregulation, including plastic responses to temperature in early life. Non-thermal explanations are also plausible as climate impacts other factors that influence size and shape, including starvation risk, predation risk, and foraging ecology. We assess the potential drivers of Bergmann’s and Allen’s rules in 30 shorebird species using extensive field data (>200,000 observations). We show birds in hot, tropical northern Australia have longer bills and smaller bodies than conspecifics in temperate, southern Australia, conforming with both ecogeographical rules. This pattern is consistent across ecologically diverse species, including migratory birds that spend early life in the Arctic. Our findings best support the hypothesis that thermoregulatory adaptation to warm climates drives latitudinal patterns in shorebird size and shape.
... Hahn et al. 2009) undertake long-distance migrations. Some of the most eye-catching migrations comprise Monarch Butterflies (Danas plexippus) migrating from Mexico to Canada (Browner 1995), Arctic Terns (Sterna paradisaea) undertaking the longest avian migration connecting Arctic with Antarctic waters (Egevang et al. 2010), Bar-tailed Godwit (Limosa lapponica) migrating from Alaska to New Zealand in an 8 day long, non-stop flight (Battley et al. 2012), or Humpback Whales (Megaptera novaeangliae) migrating from the chilly waters of the Antarctic to tropical regions to calve (Stone et al. 1990). The ultimate drivers for these predictable, long-distance movements are thought to be multifactorial, with key factors considered to include: (i) tracking spatial and temporal variations in food availability, escaping seasonal food shortages and taking advantage of abundant food resources where and when they occur; (ii) seeking physiologically optimal climates, limiting thermoregulatory costs and climactic conditions that are conducive for reproduction and vulnerable neonates; (iii) moving to areas of reduced predation, particularly during reproduction; and (iv) moving to areas of low pathogen and parasite pressure Altizer et al. 2011;Avgar et al. 2013;Chapman et al. 2015;Gnanadesikan et al. 2017;McKinnon et al. 2010). ...
Seasonal long-distance migratory behaviour of trillions of animals may in part have evolved to reduce parasite infection risk, and the fitness costs that may come with these infections. This may apply to a diversity of vertebrate migration strategies that can sometimes be observed within species and may often be age-dependent. Herein we review some common age-related variations in migration strategy, discussing why in some animal species juveniles preferentially forego or otherwise rearrange their migrations as compared to adults, potentially as an either immediate (proximate) or anticipatory (ultimate) response to infection risk and disease. We notably focus on the phenomenon of “oversummering”, where juveniles abstain from migration to the breeding grounds. This strategy is particularly prevalent amongst migratory shorebirds and has thus far received little attention as a strategy to reduce parasite infection rate, while comparative intra-specific research approaches have strong potential to elucidate the drivers of differential behavioural strategies.
... One of them is the bar-tailed godwit Limosa lapponica. The baueri subspecies, which breeds in Alaska and spends the non-breeding season mainly in New Zealand (Battley et al. 2012), is listed as 'At risk -Declining' by the New Zealand government (Robertson et al. 2016), and as 'Vulnerable' under the Environment Protection and Biodiversity Conservation Act 1999 of Australia (Australian Government 2019). The menzbieri subspecies, which breeds in northern Yakutia and the Chaun Gulf, northwest Chukotka in the eastern Russian Arctic and spends the nonbreeding season mainly in Australia (Wilson et al. 2007, Battley et al. 2012, is listed there as 'Critically Endangered' (Australian Government 2019). ...
... The baueri subspecies, which breeds in Alaska and spends the non-breeding season mainly in New Zealand (Battley et al. 2012), is listed as 'At risk -Declining' by the New Zealand government (Robertson et al. 2016), and as 'Vulnerable' under the Environment Protection and Biodiversity Conservation Act 1999 of Australia (Australian Government 2019). The menzbieri subspecies, which breeds in northern Yakutia and the Chaun Gulf, northwest Chukotka in the eastern Russian Arctic and spends the nonbreeding season mainly in Australia (Wilson et al. 2007, Battley et al. 2012, is listed there as 'Critically Endangered' (Australian Government 2019). ...
... Satellite tracking has revealed details of the migration routes of baueri and menzbieri bar-tailed godwits (Battley et al. 2012). Both use the Yellow Sea as their main staging area during pre-breeding migration (Battley et al. 2012). ...
Satellite and GPS tracking technology continues to reveal new migration patterns of birds which enables comparative studies of migration strategies and distributional information useful in conservation. Bar‐tailed godwits in the East Asian–Australasian Flyway Limosa lapponica baueri and L. l. menzbieri are known for their long non‐stop flights, however these populations are in steep decline. A third subspecies in this flyway, L. l. anadyrensis, breeds in the Anadyr River basin, Chukotka, Russia, and is morphologically distinct from menzbieri and baueri based on comparison of museum specimens collected from breeding areas. However, the non‐breeding distribution, migration route and population size of anadyrensis are entirely unknown. Among 24 female bar‐tailed godwits tracked in 2015–2018 from northwest Australia, the main non‐breeding area for menzbieri, two birds migrated further east than the rest to breed in the Anadyr River basin, i.e. they belonged to the anadyrensis subspecies. During pre‐breeding migration, all birds staged in the Yellow Sea and then flew to the breeding grounds in the eastern Russian Arctic. After breeding, these two birds migrated southwestward to stage in Russia on the Kamchatka Peninsula and on Sakhalin Island en route to the Yellow Sea. This contrasts with the other 22 tracked godwits that followed the previously described route of menzbieri, i.e. they all migrated northwards to stage in the New Siberian Islands before turning south towards the Yellow Sea, and onwards to northwest Australia. Since the Kamchatka Peninsula was not used by any of the tracked menzbieri birds, the 4500 godwits counted in the Khairusova–Belogolovaya estuary in western Kamchatka may well be anadyrensis. Comparing migration patterns across the three bar‐tailed godwits subspecies, the migration strategy of anadyrensis lies between that of menzbieri and baueri. Future investigations combining migration tracks with genomic data could reveal how differences in migration routines are evolved and maintained.
... Understanding the ecology of animals throughout their full annual cycles is necessary for conservation of threatened and common species (Marra et al. 2015). Among migratory species, shorebirds perform some of the longest migrations, moving between distant habitats where they experience varied threats throughout their annual cycle (Niles et al. 2010, Battley et al. 2012. Many shorebird populations are declining due to habitat loss, predation, climate change, human disturbance, hunting, and factors yet to be determined, and these threats can affect shorebirds at any point in their annual cycle (Andres et al. 2012, Galbraith et al. 2014, Rosenberg et al. 2019. ...
By combining all available banding and tracking data, we found that Willets (Tringa semipalmata) have a strong migratory connectivity between breeding and nonbreeding locations at the range-wide and subspecies levels, exposing two subspecies to varying threats such as hunting for the eastern subspecies (T. s. semipalmata) and climatically-altered coastal habitats for both subspecies. We found that western Willets (T. s. inornata) primarily used nonbreeding habitats along the Pacific Coast of the United States, although their reported nonbreeding range extends to the U.S. Atlantic and Gulf Coasts and the Pacific Coast of Central and South America. Eastern Willets wintered in Central and South America, which covers much of the subspecies’ known nonbreeding range. By quantifying migratory connectivity within and between two subspecies, we could suggest subspecies-specific threats and potential limiting factors in the breeding and nonbreeding periods of the annual cycle of a declining migratory shorebird. Effective management of the species will likely require a range of conservation strategies across the diverse nonbreeding regions the two subspecies occupy within the United States, Central America, and South America. However, more data are needed from Willets breeding in mid-continental North America to understand the complete extent of overlap of the two subspecies throughout the annual cycle. The strong migratory connectivity documented here highlights the need to manage Willets by subspecies and protect a diversity of breeding and nonbreeding habitats, which will benefit the conservation of other shorebird species that overlap with Willets throughout the annual cycle.
