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Three Bandwidths used to smooth Figure 4. Prolonged Periodogram with lower Prolonged Periodogram 95% Confidence Baseline
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Context 1
... same method was used to inspect the period components of the prolonged series. Three frequency bands were tried to smooth the original periodogram of the transformed stationary series in Figure 3. Finally L=7 with the corresponding bandwidth was chosen to smooth the periodogram in Figure 4. The predominant peaks appeared at =0.1167 ω and =0.0417 ω . When =0.1167 ω , the cycle of evaporation rate was 0.1167 cycles/10 seconds, which means the period of evaporation was about 86 seconds (about 1.4 minutes). When =0.0417 ω , the cycle of evaporation rate was 0.0417 cycles/10 seconds, which means the period of evaporation was about 240 seconds (4 minutes). ...
Context 2
... same method was used to inspect the period components of the prolonged series. Three frequency bands were tried to smooth the original periodogram of the transformed stationary series in Figure 3. Finally L=7 with the corresponding bandwidth was chosen to smooth the periodogram in Figure 4. ...
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... This information also gives insight into the effect of different cooling systems on additional heat losses. To the best of our knowledge, this is the first study to determine the total evaporative water loss rate from dairy cows at a daily level, which can avoid some sources of errors associated with different sweating rates between different skin regions, and cyclic sweating patterns (Berman, 1957;Gebremedhin et al., 2008;Liang et al., 2009;de Souza et al., 2018). With the design of our experiment, we were able to estimate the total evaporative water loss from cows as well as separate it between skin evaporation and respiratory evaporation. ...
The effects of ambient temperature (AT) on total evaporative water loss from dairy cows at different relative humidity (RH) and air velocity (AV) levels were studied. Twenty Holstein dairy cows with an average parity of 2.0 ± 0.7 and body weight of 687 ± 46 kg participated in the study. Two climate-controlled respiration chambers were used. The experimental indoor climate was programmed to follow a diurnal pattern with AT at night being 9°C lower than during the day. Night AT was gradually increased from 7 to 21°C and day AT was increased from 16°C to 30°C within an 8-d period, both with an incremental change of 2°C/d. The effect of 3 RH levels with a diurnal pattern were studied as well, with low values during the day and high values during the night: low (day, 30%; night, 50%), medium (day, 45%; night, 70%), and high (day, 60%; night, 90%). The effects of AV were studied during the daytime at 3 levels: no fan (0.1 m/s), fan at medium speed (1.0 m/s), and fan at high speed (1.5 m/s). The medium and high AV levels were only combined with medium RH. In total, there were 5 treatments with 4 replicates each. The animals had free access to feed and water. Based on the water balance principle inside the respiration chambers, the total evaporative water loss from dairy cows at a daily level was quantified by measuring the mass of water in the incoming and outgoing air, condensed water, added water from a humidifier, and evaporative water from a wet floor, drinking bowl, manure reservoir, and water bucket. Water evaporation from a sample skin area was measured with a ventilated skin box, and water evaporation, through respiration with a face mask. The results show that RH/AV levels had no significant effect on total evaporative water loss, whereas the interaction effect between RH/AV with AT was significant. Cows at a high RH had a tendency for a lower increasing rate of evaporative water loss compared with cows at a low RH (0.61 vs. 0.79 kg/d per 1°C increase of AT). Cows at medium and high AV levels had a greater increasing rate than cows at low AV (0.91 and 0.95 vs. 0.71 kg/d per 1°C increase of AT, respectively). The increase of evaporative heat loss from dairy cows was mainly a result of the increase in evaporation (of sweat) from the skin. The skin water evaporation determined with the water balance method (less evaporation from respiration) and the ventilated skin box method showed no significant difference. The implication of this study is that cows at a high AT depend mainly on evaporative cooling from the skin. The ventilated skin box method, measuring only a small part of the skin during a short period during the day, can be a convenient and accurate way to determine the total cutaneous evaporative water loss from cows.
... Consequently, this could have altered the skin SHL and LHL. Gebremedhin et al. (2010) and Liang et al. (2009) observed that cows sweat in a cyclic manner; there is a filling phase and a secretory phase in a cow's sweating process. They reported that the sweating rate varied over time under the same environmental conditions during a 5-h period. ...
The focus of this study was to identify the effects of increasing ambient temperature (T) at different relative humidity (RH) and air velocity (AV) levels on heat loss from the skin surface and through respiration of dairy cows. Twenty Holstein dairy cows with an average parity of 2.0 ± 0.7 and body weight of 687 ± 46 kg participated in the study. Two climate-controlled respiration chambers were used. The experimental indoor climate was programmed to follow a diurnal pattern with ambient T at night being 9°C lower than during the day. Night ambient T was gradually increased from 7 to 21°C and day ambient T was increased from 16 to 30°C within an 8-d period, both with an incremental change of 2°C per day. A diurnal pattern for RH was created as well, with low values during the day and high values during the night (low: RH_l = 30–50%; medium: RH_m = 45–70%; and high: RH_h = 60–90%). The effects of AV were studied during daytime at 3 levels (no fan: AV_l = 0.1 m/s; fan at medium speed: AV_m = 1.0 m/s; and fan at high speed: AV_h = 1.5 m/s). The AV_m and AV_h were combined only with RH_m. In total, there were 5 treatments with 4 replicates (cows) for each. Effects of short and long exposure time to warm condition were evaluated by collecting data 2 times a day, in the morning (short: 1-h exposure time) and afternoon (long: 8-h exposure time). The cows were allowed to adapt to the experimental conditions during 3 d before the main 8-d experimental period. The cows had free access to feed and water. Sensible heat loss (SHL) and latent heat loss (LHL) from the skin surface were measured using a ventilated skin box placed on the belly of the cow. These heat losses from respiration were measured with a face mask covering the cow's nose and mouth. The results showed that skin SHL decreased with increasing ambient T and the decreasing rate was not affected by RH or AV. The average skin SHL, however, was higher under medium and high AV levels, whereas it was similar under different RH levels. The skin LHL increased with increasing ambient T. There was no effect of RH on the increasing rate of LHL with ambient T. A larger increasing rate of skin LHL with ambient T was observed at high AV level compared with the other levels. Both RH and AV had no significant effects on respiration SHL or LHL. The cows lost more skin sensible heat and total respiration heat under long exposure than short exposure. When ambient T was below 20°C the total LHL (skin + respiration) represented approx. 50% of total heat loss, whereas above 28°C the LHL accounted for more than 70% of the total heat loss. Respiration heat loss increased by 34 and 24% under short and long exposures when ambient T rose from 16 to 32°C.
... Consequently, this could have altered the skin SHL and LHL. Gebremedhin et al. (2010) and Liang et al. (2009a) observed that cows sweat in a cyclic manner; there is a filling phase and a secretory phase in a cow's sweating process. They reported that the sweating rate varied over time under the same environmental conditions during 5 h period. ...
... This is again another confirmation of the cyclic nature of sweating because it is unlikely that cows would sweat less when they are impinged with solar load. A similar cyclic pattern of sweating rates was observed when the same data were analyzed using time series statistics (Liang et al., 2009). Robertshaw (1968) observed a cyclic pattern of sweating in one breed of goat and six breeds of sheep. ...
Sweating and respiration rates, and skin (dorsal) and core (rectal) temperatures of 12 Holstein dairy cows were measured in controlled environments at the William Parker Agricultural Research Complex, University of Arizona-Tucson. The focus of the study was: (1) to establish the pattern (linear or periodic) of sweating, (2) to establish whether skin or core temperature drives sweating, (3) to determine how cows react to a prolonged solar exposure, and (4) to compare dairy cows physiological responses to hot and humid versus hot and dry environmental conditions. The cows were divided into two groups of 6 cows each and were housed alternately between two chambers. The two chambers were identical but one (experimental chamber) included solar lamps to simulate solar load. The cows were alternately exposed to 550 W/m2 solar load, THI was initially set at 83 and later at 79.6, and air velocity in the measurement area on the dorsal surface was between 0.8 and 1.2 m/s. Skin temperature was greater than 35°C (threshold for heat stress). There was considerable variation in sweating rates between cows of the Holstein breed. Cows sweat in a cyclic manner and the results suggest that skin temperature is the primary driving force for sweating. The maximum sweating rate of dairy cows and feedlot heifers is around 660 g/m2-h. A prolonged exposure to hot and dry environmental condition made entirely black or predominantly black cows to foam in the mouth, stick their tongues out, and drool, and immediate intervention with water spraying helped to alleviate the thermal stress.
Closed colorimetric paper disc chambers and flow-through ventilated capsules are the most employed methods of measuring rates of local cutaneous evaporative water loss in cattle. However, we do not know if these methods show a close agreement with the total rate of cutaneous evaporative water loss derived from the weighing system (i.e., the gold standard method). We therefore combined a high-precision weighing system and flow through respirometry to accurately quantify the cutaneous evaporative water loss rates in shaded heifers, while simultaneously recording parallel data obtained from a flow-through ventilated capsule, and a closed colorimetric paper disc chamber. Least square means of the local surface-specific cutaneous evaporative water loss rate (g m⁻² h⁻¹) derived from the colorimetric paper discs and ventilated capsules show close agreement to the total rate of surface-specific cutaneous evaporative water loss (g m⁻² h⁻¹) derived from the weighing method. Likewise, fitted linear regression lines also showed that they were well correlated (e.g., R² = 0.93 and r = 0.96 for ventilated capsule vs weighing method; and R² = 0.81 and r = 0.91 for colorimetric paper discs vs weighing method). However, the mean square deviation revealed various sources of disagreement between the local measurements and those derived from the weighing method, in which the local rate of cutaneous evaporative water loss derived from colorimetric paper discs showed greater deviation. In conclusion, given the importance of cutaneous evaporative water loss for assessing temperature requirements and heat tolerance of cattle, our findings show large discrepancies derived from the closed colorimetric paper discs chamber when compared with parallel data derived from the gold standard method, which is sufficient to call into question previous findings obtained by employing such methods. Moreover, the flow-through ventilated capsule appears to be the most accurate method to assess the local rate of cutaneous evaporative water loss in cattle.
