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Thermic effect of food (TEF) (% of energy intake) in response to an overfed meal of low, normal, or high protein (compositions in Table 1) on Day 1, correlated with grams of protein/day; r = 0.53, P = 0.007 (□ = low-protein diet, • = normal-protein diet, X = high-protein diet) and Day 56 (inset).
Source publication
Objective:
Determine whether prolonged consumption of high- or low-protein diets modifies the thermogenic response to a standard meal.
Methods:
Twenty-four healthy individuals were randomized to overfeeding diets containing low (5%, n = 8), normal (15%, n = 9), or high (25%, n = 7) protein for 56 days while inpatients. The thermic effect of food...
Contexts in source publication
Context 1
... the start of the study, the acute TEF response to the study diets was significantly associated with grams of protein consumed, r=0.53, P=0.007, Figure 1, and after 56 days of the study diet TEF remained elevated in response to the high protein test meal (15.4±3.1%) ...
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Objective:
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Methods:
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Citations
... A high protein diet (25-30% of EI) may also mitigate age-related reductions in EE and aid body-weight management (Drummen et al., 2018). For example, increases in TEE, RMR, sleeping metabolic rate (SMR), and DIT (Bray et al., 2015;Drummen et al., 2020;Martens et al., 2015;Oliveira et al., 2021;Sutton et al., 2016), improved metabolic efficiency of physical activity (Apolzan et al. 2014; | 3 of 24 GRIFFEN et al. Martens et al., 2015), decreased 24-h respiratory quotient (RQ) and fat balance (Drummen et al., 2020;Lejeune et al., 2006;Martens et al., 2015;Oliveira et al., 2021;Smeets et al., 2013), and an adaptive thermogenic increase in TEE and SMR when dietary protein intake is returned to baseline levels (Bray et al., 2015) have been reported following a high protein diet. ...
Purpose
To investigate changes in 24‐h energy expenditure (EE), substrate oxidation, and body composition following resistance exercise (RE) and a high protein diet via whey protein supplementation (alone and combined) in healthy older men.
Methods
In a pooled groups analysis, 33 healthy older men [(mean ± SE) age: 67 ± 1 years; BMI: 25.4 ± 0.4 kg/m²] were randomized to either RE (2×/week; n = 17) or non‐exercise (n = 16) and either a high protein diet via whey protein supplementation (PRO, 2 × 25 g whey protein isolate/d; n = 17) or control (CON, 2 × 23.75 g maltodextrin/d; n = 16). An exploratory sub‐analysis was also conducted between RE+CON (n = 8) and RE+PRO (n = 9). At baseline and 12 weeks, participants resided in respiration chambers for measurement of 24‐h EE and substrate oxidation and wore an accelerometer for 7 days for estimation of free‐living EE.
Results
Resistance exercise resulted in greater increases in fat‐free mass (1.0 ± 0.3 kg), resting metabolic rate [(RMR) 36 ± 14 kcal/d], sedentary EE (60 ± 33 kcal/d), and sleeping metabolic rate [(SMR) 45 ± 7 kcal/d] compared to non‐exercise (p < 0.05); however, RE decreased activity energy expenditure in free‐living (−90 ± 25 kcal/d; p = 0.049) and non‐exercise activity inside the respiration chamber (−1.9 ± 1.1%; p = 0.049). PRO decreased fat mass [(FM) −0.5 ± 0.3 kg], increased overnight protein oxidation (30 ± 6 g/d), and decreased 24‐h protein balance (−20 ± 4 g/d) greater than CON (p < 0.05). RE+PRO decreased FM (−1.0 ± 0.5 kg) greater than RE+CON (p = 0.04).
Conclusion
Resistance exercise significantly increased RMR, SMR, and sedentary EE in healthy older men, but not total EE. PRO alone and combined with RE decreased FM and aided body weight maintenance. This study was registered at clinicaltrials.gov as NCT03299972.
... Details and many results from this randomized, parallel-arm in-patient study have been previously published [8][9][10][11][12][13][14][15][16]. Briefly, participants were admitted to the metabolic ward where energy requirements for weight maintenance were established over the first 3 weeks. ...
Background:
During overeating, a low protein diet slowed the rate of weight gain and increased the energy cost of the added weight, suggesting that low protein diets reduced energy efficiency. The Protein Overfeeding (PROOF) study explored the metabolic changes to low and high protein diets, and this sub-study examined the changes in body composition and blood lipids when eating high and low protein diets during overeating.
Methods:
Twenty-three healthy volunteers (M = 14; F = 9) participated in an 8-week, parallel arm study where they were overfed by ~40% with diets containing 5% (LPD = low protein diet), 15% (NPD = normal protein diet), or 25% (HPD = high protein diet) protein. Dual energy X-ray absorptiometry (DXA) and computer tomography (CT) were used to quantify whole body and abdominal fat and intrahepatic lipid, respectively. Metabolites were measured by standard methods.
Results:
Protein intake and fat intake were inversely related since carbohydrate intake was fixed. Although overeating the LPD diet was associated with a significant increase in high density lipoprotein (HDL)-cholesterol (p < 0.001) and free fatty acids (p = 0.034), and a significant decrease in fat free mass (p < 0.0001) and liver density (p = 0.038), statistical models showed that dietary protein was the main contributor to changes in fat free mass (p = 0.0040), whereas dietary fat was the major predictor of changes in HDL-cholesterol (p = 0.014), free fatty acids (p = 0.0016), and liver fat (p = 0.0007).
Conclusions:
During 8 weeks of overeating, the level of dietary protein intake was positively related to the change in fat free mass, but not to the change in HDL-cholesterol, free fatty acids, and liver fat which were, in contrast, related to the intake of dietary fat.
... Details and many results from this randomized, parallel-arm in-patient study have been previously published [8][9][10][11][12][13][14][15][16]. Briefly, participants were admitted to the metabolic ward where energy requirements for weight maintenance were established over the first 3 weeks. ...
... Not surprisingly, these synergistic effects have been noticed by industry and several HP-TDR products are widely available to consumers. Although some well-designed inpatient metabolic studies have already assessed the effects of HP diets on energy and substrate metabolism in healthy individuals (12)(13)(14)(15)(16), to our knowledge, no inpatient metabolic balance studies have evaluated the exact role of a liquid TDR with an increased protein content on EE, macronutrient oxidation rates and balances, and metabolic blood markers. Additionally, and of extreme importance is the study of this intervention using state-of-the-art methodology in a controlled environment in healthy females and males with a normal body weight to eliminate the confounding effects of obesity and comorbidities on the results. ...
Background
High-protein diets and total diet replacements are becoming increasingly popular for weight loss; however, further research is needed to elucidate their impact on the mechanisms involved in weight regulation.
Objective
The aim of this inpatient metabolic balance study was to compare the impact of a high-protein total diet replacement (HP-TDR) versus a control diet (CON) on select components of energy metabolism in healthy adults of both sexes.
Methods
The acute intervention was a randomized, controlled, crossover design with participants allocated to 2 isocaloric arms: 1) HP-TDR: 35% carbohydrate, 40% protein, and 25% fat achieved through a nutritional supplement; 2) CON: 55% carbohydrate, 15% protein, and 30% fat. Participants received the prescribed diets for 32 h while inside a whole-body calorimetry unit (WBCU). The first dietary intervention randomly offered in the WBCU was designed to maintain energy balance and the second matched what was offered during the first stay. Energy expenditure, macronutrient oxidation rates and balances, and metabolic blood markers were assessed. Body composition was measured at baseline using DXA.
Results
Forty-three healthy, normal-weight adults (19 females and 24 males) were included. Compared with the CON diet, the HP-TDR produced higher total energy expenditure [(EE) 81 ± 82 kcal/d, P <0.001], protein and fat oxidation rates (38 ± 34 g/d, P <0.001; 8 ± 20 g/d, P = 0.013, respectively), and a lower carbohydrate oxidation rate (–38 ± 43 g/d, P <0.001). Moreover, a HP-TDR led to decreased energy (–112 ± 85 kcal/d; P <0.001), fat (–22 ± 20 g/d; P <0.001), and carbohydrate balances (–69 ± 44 g/d; P <0.001), and increased protein balance (90 ± 32 g/d; P <0.001).
Conclusions
Our primary findings were that a HP-TDR led to higher total EE, increased fat oxidation, and negative fat balance. These results suggest that a HP-TDR may promote fat loss compared with a conventional isocaloric diet. These trials were registered at clinicaltrials.gov as NCT02811276 and NCT03565510.
... In addition, weight loss in people with obesity improves and can even eliminate many of these abnormalities [1][2][3]. Highprotein intake (both absolute amounts and as percentage of total dietary energy intake) is commonly recommended to help people avoid body weight gain and to help people with obesity lose weight as acutely protein is more satiating and has a greater thermic effect of feeding than carbohydrate and fat [4][5][6]. However, the results from long-term observational and several randomized controlled diet intervention studies do not demonstrate a beneficial effect of high-protein intake on body weight or metabolic health; on the contrary, high-protein intake is associated with both weight gain and obesity and increased risk for developing cardiometabolic diseases [6,7 weight loss, but the beneficial effect is small and appears to be limited to the first few weeks of diet intervention and to diets that increase protein intake at the expense of carbohydrate intake [2,6]. ...
Purpose of review:
High-protein intake is commonly recommended to help people manage body weight. However, high-protein intake could have adverse health consequences. Here we review the latest findings concerning the effect of high-protein intake on cardiometabolic health.
Recent findings:
Calorie-reduced, high-protein, low-carbohydrate diets lower plasma glucose in people with type 2 diabetes (T2D). However, when carbohydrate intake is not markedly reduced, high-protein intake often does not alter plasma glucose and increases insulin and glucagon concentrations, which are risk factors for T2D and ischemic heart disease. High-protein intake does not alter plasma triglyceride and cholesterol concentrations but promotes atherogenesis in animal models. The effect of high-protein intake on liver fat remains unclear. In population studies, high-protein intake is associated with increased risk for T2D, nonalcoholic fatty liver disease, and possibly cardiovascular diseases.
Summary:
The relationship between protein intake and cardiometabolic health is complex and influenced by concomitant changes in body weight and overall diet composition. Although a high-protein, low-carbohydrate, reduced-energy diet can have beneficial effects on body weight and plasma glucose, habitual high-protein intake, without marked carbohydrate and energy restriction, is associated with increased cardiometabolic disease risk, presumably mediated by the changes in the hormonal milieu after high-protein intake.
... For example, if a person were to consume five hundred calories of food, it would cost roughly fifty calories to digest that food. The total amount of meal calories and meal composition-that is, the amount of carbohydrates, protein, and fat-has an acute impact on TEF, which can last for several hours following meal consumption (Kinabo and Durnin 1990;Sutton et al. 2016). A 600-kcal meal can increase BMR by 21 percent, while a 1,200-kcal meal can increase BMR by 33 percent; this post-meal increase can last over five hours, likely spanning the time from one meal to the next (Kinabo and Durnin 1990). ...
... A less malleable component appears to be the thermic effect of food. A recent study examined the potential for metabolic adaptation to a sustained high-protein diet (Sutton et al. 2016). Participants in this study who consumed a high-protein diet for forty-two days experienced a 15 percent increase in TEF cost and maintained that elevated cost to the end of the experiemental diet, although authors noted there was a high degree of variation in TEF responses. ...
Humans have successfully inhabited every continent on this planet. Our ability to survive and thrive in such a wide range of environments is fascinating, particularly from an energetic perspective. As knowledge of human total energy expenditure (TEE, kcal day ⁻¹ ) has deepened, so too has the ability to interpret observable patterns in human metabolic physiology and apply these interpretations to our evolutionary history. This review examines the basic components of human TEE as well as the interactions among these components. This is followed by a discussion of two recent theories regarding limits on the amount of calories used and how those limits may mediate life‐history variables. Finally, this review provides a look ahead into the lesser explored areas of human TEE, suggesting future areas of research. The ability to measure how much energy humans expend and how they allocate that energy is a powerful tool that enables anthropologists to understand not only our past but also our present. [ energy expenditure, thermoregulation, life history ]
... To test this hypothesis, we used a metabolic respiration chamber that was a descendent of the one developed by Atwater and Rosa (1). With it, we overfed men and women by 40% above their energy needs with 1 of 3 diets: a 5% protein diet, a 15% protein diet, or a 25% protein diet for a period of 8 wk while the individuals lived in the Pennington Biomedical Center research facility (17)(18)(19)(20)(21)(22)(23). We did indeed find that weight gain was significantly lower with the 5% protein diet than with either of the other 2 diets (17). ...
A central theme of Atwater's research was the development and application of methods to understand how human beings and animals adapt to the nutrients they ingest. The research described in this article also deals with adaptation to nutrition focusing on adaptation to overnutrition, adaptation to undernutrition, adaptation to dietary fat, adaptation to dietary protein, adaptation to micronutrients, and adaptation to sugar and high-fructose corn syrup (HFCS). Studies using overfeeding have shown several things. First, overfeeding did not change the thermic response to ingestion of food nor the coupling of oxidative phosphorylation in muscle to energy expended by muscles during work on a bicycle ergometer between 25 and 100 watts. Second, the response to overfeeding was significantly influenced by the quantity of protein in the diet. During carefully controlled studies of underfeeding of people with obesity, the macronutrient composition of the diet did not affect the magnitude of weight loss. However, baseline genetic and metabolic information could provide guidance for selecting among the lower or higher protein diets, and lower or higher fat diets. Adaptation to an increase in dietary fat from 35% to 50% is slow and variable in healthy sedentary men. Adaptation is more rapid and complete when these same men were physically active. This effect of muscular exercise was traced to changes in the metabolism of glucose in muscles where pathways inhibiting glucose metabolism were activated by exercise. Dietary patterns that increased the intake of calcium, magnesium, and potassium effectively lower blood pressure in individuals with high normal blood pressure. Finally, the intake of sugary beverages was related to the onset of the current epidemic of obesity.
... During times of inadequate protein consumption or illness, amino acids stored in muscle are released to support protein synthesis and essential physiological functions in vital organs. In addition, dietary protein is more satiating than carbohydrate and fat, which could be beneficial in lifestyle interventions aimed at preventing or treating obesity [1][2][3] . For these reasons, a high dietary protein intake has been recommended by medical organizations, international expert groups and health-care professionals to increase muscle mass and strength and facilitate weight management 1,4-8 . ...
... g/kg per day, which is greater than the RDI and PRI, for older adults (>65 years old) to prevent age-associated declines in muscle mass 4,5 . High protein intake (defined in this Perspectives as more than the RDI of 0.8 g/kg per day) is also commonly recommended to help people maintain or lose body weight because protein is more satiating than carbohydrate and fat and has a greater thermic effect of feeding (that is, the increase in metabolic rate due to digestion, absorption and metabolism of ingested nutrients) than carbohydrate and fat [1][2][3] . The perception that high protein intake improves muscle mass, muscle function and body weight has led the general public to believe that a high protein intake from consuming naturally protein-rich and protein-enriched foods is 'healthy' 24,25 . ...
... In addition, in people with overweight and obesity, high protein intake without a concomitant substantial decrease in carbohydrate intake attenuates the therapeutic effect of diet-induced weight loss on whole-body insulin sensitivity. However, increased protein intake and consequent glucagon secretion could be beneficial in people with obesity and T2DM by facilitating weight loss and improving glycaemic control through an increase in satiety and the thermic effect of feeding, slower gastric emptying, decreased and slower glucose appearance in plasma and enhanced insulin secretion [1][2][3]99,102,115 . Protein ingestion increases muscle protein synthesis and decreases muscle protein breakdown but the relationship between protein ingestion and net protein balance reaches a plateau at ~20-30 g per meal. ...
Dietary protein is crucial for human health because it provides essential amino acids for protein synthesis. In addition, dietary protein is more satiating than carbohydrate and fat. Accordingly, many people consider the protein content when purchasing food and beverages and report ‘trying to eat more protein’. The global market for protein ingredients is projected to reach approximately US$90 billion by 2021, largely driven by the growing demand for protein-fortified food products. This Perspective serves as a caution against the trend of protein-enriched diets and provides an evidence-based counterpoint that underscores the potential adverse public health consequences of high protein intake.
... High protein intake during weight-loss therapy is often recommended to facilitate both short-term and long-term weight loss because protein increases satiety and the thermogenic effect of feeding (21,(42)(43)(44). However, the results from the most recent systematic review and meta-analysis show that high protein intake does not cause greater weight loss than standard protein intake in older people with obesity who participated in a weight-loss program (24). ...
Objective
High protein (particularly leucine‐rich whey protein) intake is recommended to mitigate the adverse effect of weight loss on muscle mass. The effectiveness of this approach is unknown.
Methods
Seventy middle‐aged (50‐65 years old) postmenopausal women with obesity were randomized to (1) weight maintenance (WM), (2) weight loss and the recommended daily allowance for protein (0.8 g/kg/d) (WL group), or (3) weight loss plus whey protein supplementation (total protein: 1.2 g/kg/d) (WL‐PS group). Thigh muscle volume and strength were assessed at baseline and after 5% and 10% weight loss in the weight‐loss groups and after matched time periods (∼3 and 6 months, respectively) in the WM group.
Results
A 5% weight loss caused a greater decrease in thigh muscle volume in the WL group than the WL‐PS group (4.7% ± 0.7% vs. 2.8% ± 0.8%, respectively; P < 0.05). After 10% weight loss, there was no statistically significant difference in muscle mass loss in the two groups, and the total loss was small in both groups (5.5% ± 0.8% and 4.5% ± 0.7%, respectively). The dietary interventions did not affect muscle strength.
Conclusions
Whey protein supplementation during diet‐induced weight loss does not have clinically important therapeutic effects on muscle mass or strength in middle‐aged postmenopausal women with obesity.
Background
The metabolic impact of pre-exercise feeding of protein or carbohydrate on fat oxidation and energy expenditure rates, especially, in females, is poorly understood.
Methods
Recreationally active females ( n = 15, 32 ± 10 years, 164.8 ± 5.6 cm, 63.5 ± 9.3 kg, 23.4 ± 3.2 kg/m ² ) completed four testing sessions in a randomized, double-blind, crossover fashion after fasting overnight. Participants ingested isovolumetric and isoenergetic solutions containing either 25 g of whey protein, casein protein, carbohydrate (CHO), or a non-caloric placebo (PLA). Participants then completed 60 min of treadmill exercise at 15% below ventilatory threshold 30 min after ingestion. Respiratory exchange ratio (RER) was evaluated throughout exercise and resting energy expenditure (REE) was assessed pre-exercise, and 0-, 60-, and 120-min post-exercise.
Results
A significant condition x time interaction was observed for RER ( p = 0.008) during exercise, with CHO exhibiting higher RER values (vs. PLA) at four time points. A significant main effect for condition was observed for carbohydrate ( p = 0.001) and fat ( p = 0.02) oxidation rates during exercise, with fat oxidation rates being higher in PLA vs. CHO ( p = 0.01). When total fat oxidized was calculated across the entire exercise bout, a significant main effect for condition was observed ( p = 0.01), with PLA being greater than CHO ( p = 0.04). A significant condition x time interaction ( p = 0.02) was found for both absolute and normalized REE, with casein and whey protein having significantly higher values than CHO ( p < 0.05) immediately post-exercise.
Conclusion
When compared to a fasted control (PLA), consuming CHO, but not protein, decreased total fat oxidation prior to a 60-min bout of moderate-intensity exercise in females.
