Figure 5 - available via license: Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivatives 4.0 International
Content may be subject to copyright.
The skeleton of the Fowl. 169 1. Skull; 2. Cervical vertebrae; 3. Furcula; 4. Coracoid; 5. Uncinate process; 6. Keel; 7. Patella; 8. Tarsometatarsus; 9. Digits; 10. and 11. Tibiotarsus; 12. Femur; 13. Pubis (innominate bone); 14. Ischium (innominate bone); 15. Illium (innominate bone); 16. Caudal vertebrae; 17. Pygostyle; 18. Synsacrum; 19. Scapula; 20. Lumbar vertebrae; 21. Humerus; 22. Ulna; 23. Radius; 24. Carpus; 25. 3rd digit; 26. 2nd digit; 27. 1st digit (Alula) (Squelette_oiseau.JPG: BIODIDACderivative work: mario modesto/CC BY; https:// creativecommons.org/licenses/by/2.5).
Source publication
Similar publications
Antimicrobial resistance is considered one of the three most important health problems by the World Health Organization. The emergence and spread of an increasing number of antimicrobial-resistant microorganisms make this a worldwide problem. Antibiotic-resistant bacteria are estimated to be the cause of 33,000 deaths in Europe and 700,000 worldwid...
Bloodstream infections (BSIs) cause >500,000 infections and >80,000 deaths per year in North America. The length of time between the onset of symptoms and administration of appropriate antimicrobials is directly linked to mortality rates. It currently takes 2–5 days to identify BSI pathogens and measure their susceptibility to antimicrobials – a ti...
As antibiotic resistance is becoming a major public health problem worldwide, one of the approaches for novel antibiotic discovery is re-purposing drugs available on the market for treating antibiotic resistant bacteria. The main economic advantage of this approach is that since these drugs have already passed all the safety tests, it vastly reduce...
Citations
... Antimicrobials in poultry must be regulated to fight and eradicate antimicrobial resistance. As an initiative, the Australian government has released a guideline on prescribing antimicrobials for poultry that describes the appropriate usage and best practices in handling antimicrobials [5]. ...
A novel and significant method was developed and validated with a sensitive, rapid, and simultaneous analytical method to determine antimicrobials in chicken tissues such as the kidney and liver. The process involved a unique approach to precipitation extraction. This method has not been widely used in this context, followed by the evaporation of the supernatant and reconstitution with the mobile phase. Antimicrobials, including Azithromycin, Clarithromycin, Erythromycin, Clavulanic acid, Ciprofloxacin, Clofazimine, Fluconazole, Linezolid, and Moxifloxacin were meticulously considered for development and validation in the chicken tissues. These antimicrobials were chosen based on their everyday use in poultry farming and their potential impact on human health. We used Ultra-Performance Liquid Chromatography with triple quad Mass Spectrometry and employed multiple reaction monitoring to detect the analytes of interest. All the compounds were well separated using Atlantis T3, 4.6x50mm, 3 μm. The linear range was set between 25 to 1000 ng/gm. The method was validated following linearity, extraction recovery, matrix effect impact, limit of detection, sensitivity, autosampler and benchtop stability, ensuring the results’ reliability and our method’s robustness.
... Antimicrobial resistance (AMR) is a global public health challenge that is receiving increasing attention. Following the adoption of a new strategy in 2020, the veterinary profession continues to play a critical role in combating AMR [1]. Inappropriate use of antibiotics in recent decades, along with social and economic trends, have significantly accelerated the selection and spread of resistant bacteria, leading to a marked increase in resistance-related mortality [2]. ...
Background: Antimicrobial resistance is one of the greatest challenges of our time, urging researchers in both veterinary and public health to engage in collaborative efforts, thereby fostering the One Health approach. Infections caused by Staphylococcus species can not only lead to significant diseases in poultry but also pose serious threats to human life, particularly in hospital (nosocomial) infections; therefore, it is crucial to identify their antimicrobial resistance. Methods: Our objective was to assess the susceptibility profile of commensal Staphylococcus aureus strains (n = 227) found in commercial chicken flocks in Hungary through the determination of minimum inhibitory concentration (MIC) values. Results: Based on our findings, resistance to tiamulin (82.8%; 95% CI: 77.4–87.2%) and doxycycline (74.4%; 95% CI: 68.5–79.7%) is the most critical. The 55.1% (95% CI: 48.8–61.3%) resistance rate to enrofloxacin, a critically important antimicrobial, is also concerning. The fact that 58.6% (95% CI: 52.4–64.5%) of the strains were resistant to amoxicillin and 35.7% (95% CI: 29.7–42.1) were resistant to amoxicillin–clavulanic acid suggests that a proportion of the strains produce β-lactamase. Comparing our results with the available human hospital data, it was found that resistance to macrolide antibiotics is similarly high in both cases. Conclusions: Our findings highlight the necessity of conducting regular surveillance studies, which would allow the monitoring of future temporal trends. This information could benefit practitioners making clinical decisions to successfully treat infections. To uncover the underlying causes of multidrug resistance, next-generation sequencing can be employed to elucidate the genetic basis of phenotypic resistance.
... Amoxicillin has been used in some countries such as Australia against infectious coryza (Avibacterium paragallinarum); fowl cholera (Pasteurella multocida), Ornithobacterium rhinotracheale and E. coli (119). Despite a reported low level of AMR, beta-lactam resistant E. coli harboring the beta-lactamase bla TEM-1B gene have been detected in Australian layer hens (120). ...
Shift in laying hens housing from conventional cage-based systems to alternatives has impacted their health and performance. Microorganisms colonize young chick in the early stages of their physiological and immune development. These colonizing microbes originate from parent and the environment. Escherichia coli is among the normal gut colonizing bacteria however, some E. coli strains known as avian pathogenic E. coli (APEC), cause local or systemic infections (colibacillosis) responsible of significant economic losses to the poultry industry. Potential APEC strains and other poultry gut microbiota are influenced by several factors such as housing system, and the use of feed additives (prebiotics, probiotics, symbiotic, among others). This review will discuss the status of pullets and layers immunity, gut health, and predisposing factors of colibacillosis. Dietary interventions and some colibacillosis mitigation strategies in pullets and laying hens are reviewed and discussed. With the development of sequencing technologies and the use of feed additives as alternatives to antibiotics, future studies need to understand some of the complex associations between the feed additives, the rearing environment, and their selective pressure on gut microbiota, including E. coli, and their impacts on immune development in pullets and hens.
... To control the infection in birds, antimicrobial drugs can be used orally or intramuscularly. Before the application of antimicrobials, the antibiotic sensitivity test is recommended to avoid the issue of antimicrobial resistance (AMR) (Gray et al., 2021). The presence of R-plasmid in Salmonella causes this bacterium to show resistance against multiple drugs including antimicrobials such as penicillin, oxytetracycline, aminoglycosides, and sulfa drugs, therefore, we have to make careful choices of antibiotic or have to shift to antibiotic alternatives to overcome the antimicrobial resistant (Singh et al., 2010). ...
The poultry industry plays a significant role in the country's GDP, being a major agricultural stakeholder. The presence of certain viruses and bacteria can lead to fatal diseases in poultry. One of the major bacterial diseases is salmonellosis, which has a high morbidity and mortality rate causing significant economic losses all over the world. The losses are exacerbated by an emerging antibiotic/ antimicrobial resistance. Being a global threat, it is crucial to carefully choose antibiotics or shift to antibiotic alternatives. Cinnamon and its derivatives may be a viable alternative to antibiotics for treating salmonellosis due to their antimicrobial properties. Cinnamon possesses antioxidant, antidiabetic, antifungal, and antibacterial properties, and can replace the irrational use of different antibiotics to treat various Salmonella infections including Pullorum disease. This chapter provides a comprehensive overview of cinnamon's pharmacological properties in preclinical and clinical investigations against bacterial infection and highlights the crucial need for additional research to provide a thorough and definitive conclusion for its ideal application in the treatment of Salmonella Pullorum infection in poultry.
... The higher use among broilers compared to backyard may be because broiler strains are less disease-resistant and more prone to catching infections (Bhuiyan et al., 2019;Korver, 2023). In addition, broilers may need more antibiotics than backyard farmers because they are sold at young ages and are more likely to become sick than mature chicken birds (Gray et al., 2021;Connolly et al., 2022;Korver, 2023). ...
WHO's Global Action Plan on Antimicrobial Resistance (AMR) and Pakistan's National Action Plan on AMR, aimed to phase out the Critically Important Antimicrobials (CIAs) in livestock farming. This cross-sectional study aimed to examine antimicrobial use (AMU) patterns among 386 poultry farms and investigate the association between farming types and AMU patterns in Punjab, Sindh, Balochistan, and Khyber Pakhtunkhwa, and Islamabad Capital Territory province in Pakistan. A questionnaire-based survey revealed that all participants were male, the majority
belonged to the middle-income group (46.9%) and a significant proportion was university-educated (39.4%). Extensive use of the Highest Priority CIAs, including enrofloxacin (72.3%), colistin sulfate (61.9%), and
tilmicosin (36.3%) was observed. High Priority CIAs, including amoxicillin, gentamycin, and neomycin, were used by 48.4%, 28.2%, and 36.3% of farms, respectively. A chi-square test showed a significant association between farming types and AMU patterns (p<0.05), except for aminoglycosides and doxycycline. Breeders showed the highest antimicrobial usage frequency, while backyard farmers tended to use them infrequently. Broiler and layer farmers occupied intermediary positions between these two extremes. Among various farming, broilers exhibited the highest prevalence of preventive AMU (47.8%). Breeders exhibited the lowest frequency of either combination therapy or whole flock treatment when few got sick at 22.2% and 44.4%, respectively. Our findings showed extensive CIA utilization in poultry farming. These findings could guide the phasing out process of HtP-CIAs in poultry, and potentially other food animals in Pakistan and policy making.
... Usually this takes at least 3 days, and mortality may continue to increase during the first few days as severely affected birds succumb, especially if they are too ill to take medication. However, acute illnesses are usually brought under control within 5-7 days, and if no response is apparent within 3-5 days, the diagnosis and treatment regimen should be reevaluated [52]. ...
Goals: In the absence of authorized veterinary medicinal products, veterinarians may use authorized human medicinal products if necessary. The number of registered veterinary drugs, including veterinary antibiotics, has increased over the years. It is increasingly important to reduce the use of medically important antimicrobials in veterinary medicine to prevent the development and spread of antimicrobial resistance. The aim of this study was to analyze trends in the use of human antibiotics in veterinary medicine in Lubumbashi. Methods: Data on human antibiotics used in veterinary medicine were collected by a field survey among broiler breeders and in veterinary pharmacies. Data were recorded using a pre-established questionnaire on Google form. And we received 827 responses, and the results were analyzed on EPI Info 7.3.2.6 Results: Antimicrobials from all families are used either for treatment or for prevention or even as a growth booster. The sources of supply are mainly veterinary and human pharmacies, the dosages are in most cases veterinary, or an adaptation and the average duration of treatment is 5 days for diseases and throughout the breeding period as a booster or in prevention. Overall, the calculation of dosage, the interaction of food and water with which the antibiotics are mixed actively participate in the reduction of the concentration of antibiotics which is responsible for the occurrence of multi-resistant strains. Conclusions: Although the number of registered veterinary antibiotics has increased over the years, the consumption of human antibiotics used in veterinary medicine has increased in total quantity and turnover. Control of the routes of administration, dosage and interactions of food and water for mixtures of antimicrobials is necessary.
... However, nanomaterials must be able to overcome the environmental and mechanical degradation characteristic of animal gastrointestinal systems to reach their targets, usually the (Meng et al., 2018). In the intestine, the nanomaterial faces a physical barrier that regulates intestinal permeability and microbiota, which prevents the spread of microorganisms, toxins and foreign substances into the circulatory system (Gray et al., 2021;Meng et al., 2018). Hence, factors such as nanomaterial composition, size, ...
Feed costs present a major burden in animal production for human consumption, representing a key opportunity for cost reduction and profit improvement. Nanotechnology offers potential to increase productivity by creating higher‐quality and safer products. The feed sector has benefited from the use of nanosystems to improve the stability and bioavailability of feed ingredients. The development of nanotechnology products for feed must consider the challenges raised by biological barriers as well as regulatory requirements. While some nanotechnology‐based products are already commercially available for animal production, the exponential growth and application of these products requires further research ensuring their safety and the establishment of comprehensive legislative frameworks and regulatory guidelines. Thus, this article provides an overview of the current state of the art regarding nanotechnology solutions applied in feed, as well as the risks and opportunities aimed to help researchers and livestock producers.
... The lack of treatment guidelines in the poultry sector is of public health concern and contributing factor to the development of AMR (Nhung et al. 2017;Gray et al. 2021). Under such circumstances, there is no standardized treatment for diseases and the prescription of ...
... Certainly, antimicrobial residues have been detected in poultry products like eggs, which risks the development of AMR in any microorganism that can be isolated (Alaboudi 2017). Food-producing animals can contract AMR pathogens and genes from the environment, especially in situations of poor waste management (Gray et al. 2021). Further, food-producing animals can contract antimicrobial-resistant pathogens and genes from humans (Gray et al. 2021). ...
... Food-producing animals can contract AMR pathogens and genes from the environment, especially in situations of poor waste management (Gray et al. 2021). Further, food-producing animals can contract antimicrobial-resistant pathogens and genes from humans (Gray et al. 2021). Furthermore, food-producing animals can transmit AMR pathogens to humans and the environment, and vice-versa (Vidovic and Vidovic 2020;Rhouma et al. 2022). ...
Antimicrobial resistance (AMR) is a global public health challenge exacerbated by the indiscriminate use of antimicrobials. A well-implemented national AMR surveillance system is one of the important strategies for combating AMR. Several bacteria are resistant to antimicrobials, but Escherichia coli (E. coli) and Enterococcus species have been demonstrated to be resistant to most antimicrobials used in veterinary and human medicine, making them valuable indicators for AMR surveillance. The implementation of AMR surveillance in Zambia is still in its infancy. Therefore, this study aimed to evaluate the AMR challenges in layer poultry production and the associated surveillance strategy in the Lusaka and Copperbelt Provinces of Zambia.
This cross-sectional study was conducted in layer farms from September 2020 to April 2021. A total of 365 cloacal samples were collected from 77-layer poultry farms using the National Surveillance AMR protocol for laying hens. E. coli identification and confirmation were done using Analytical Profile Index (API 20E) kits and 16S rRNA sequencing, while Enterococci were identified using API 20 STREP and confirmed by sequencing the 16S rRNA. The expected band size (amplicon size) was 500 bp for E. coli and 600 bp for Enterococci. Antibiotic susceptibility testing (AST) for E. coli was done using a panel of thirteen antibiotics, while that of Enterococci utilised nine antibiotics. Quantitative data were analysed using Stata version 16.1 and WHONET 2020. All statistical tests were conducted at a 95% significance level and a margin error of 5%. Qualitative data were collected using interviews and analysed using the thematic analysis method.
Of the 365 cloacal swab samples, 339 (92.9%) tested positive for E. coli, while 308 (84.4%) tested positive for Enterococci. E. coli isolates were highly resistant to tetracycline (54.6%), ampicillin (54.0%), and cefotaxime (30.4%) but highly susceptible to meropenem 94.7%), chloramphenicol (85.8%), and ceftazidime (85.3%). Additionally, 64.6% of E. coli isolates were multidrug-resistant (MDR). Enterococci isolates were highly resistant to tetracycline (80.5%), erythromycin 53.6%), and quinupristin-dalfopristin (53.2%) but highly susceptible to nitrofurantoin (77.6%), chloramphenicol (71.1%), and ampicillin (63.3%). Further, 86% of Enterococci isolates were MDR. The overall awareness of AMR among layer poultry farmers was 47% (n=36). There was high usage of antibiotics in the layer poultry sector at 86% (n=66), which mainly were accessed from agro-veterinary shops (31%, n=24) and pharmacies (21%, n=16) without prescriptions. Commercial farmers were more likely to be aware of AMR compared to medium-scale farmers (OR = 14.07, 95% CI: 2.09–94.70). Additionally, farmers who used prescriptions to access antibiotics were more likely to be aware of AMR compared to those who did not (OR = 99.66, 95% CI: 7.14–1391.65). Further, farmers who did not treat market-ready birds with antibiotics were more likely to be aware of AMR compared to those who did (OR = 41.92, 95% CI: 1.26–1396.36). Compared to small-scale farmers, commercial farmers were less likely to have AMR problems (AOR=0.20, 95% CI: 0.04-0.99, p=0.049). Similarly, farmers who were aware of AMR were less likely to have AMR problems (AOR=0.26, 95% CI: 0.08-0.86, p=0.027). The AMR surveillance system used in poultry in Zambia effectively identifies indicator microorganisms resistant to antibiotics used in poultry and human health. However, the surveillance system faces challenges, including inadequate human resource and funding shortages, which impact the active surveillance of AMR in layer poultry production.
This study found that E. coli and Enterococci were highly resistant to common antibiotics (tetracyclines and penicillins) used in layer poultry production. The presence of MDR E. coli and Enterococci isolated from laying hens is a public health concern. This study further found that AMR in the sampled farms was due to farmers' low awareness of AMR and its associated factors. To address this problem, there is an urgent need to review and update the current protocol on AMR surveillance in poultry in Zambia and allocate resources efficiently. Additionally, there is a need to strengthen the surveillance and antimicrobial stewardship programmes coupled with poultry farmer educational interventional activities.
... Pasteurella multocida is reported to be resistant to lincosamides (lincomycin, clindamycin) while showing moderate sensitivity to pleuromutilins (tiamulin) and macrolides (tilozin), as confirmed by the high MIC values for these agents [45]. Although aminoglycosides like gentamicin may be sensitive in vitro, they are not absorbed orally, making them impractical for poultry treatment due to the impracticality of parenteral administration [46,47]. Similarly, colistin is not absorbed when administered orally [48]. ...
Simple Summary
In this study, the antibiotic susceptibility of Pasteurella multocida strains isolated from clinical cases in waterfowl was examined. Pasteurella multocida can cause potentially severe diseases, usually due to predisposing factors. Our investigations involved determining the minimal inhibitory concentration (MIC), which is the lowest concentration of a substance that still effectively inhibits bacterial growth. Our results indicate that a significant portion of the isolates remained susceptible to most antibiotics, with some exceptions showing resistance to enrofloxacin. This study highlights the problem of antibiotic resistance and the importance of appropriate antibiotic selection for effective disease management. The findings of this research encourage further studies on antibiotic susceptibility and optimal treatment strategies to preserve waterfowl health.
Abstract
The waterfowl industry represents a narrow, yet economically significant, sector within the poultry industry. Although less prominent, the waterfowl sector is nonetheless of equal importance to any other livestock sector in terms of antimicrobial resistance and animal health issues. This study assesses the antimicrobial resistance profile of Pasteurella multocida bacterial strains isolated from clinical cases in Hungary’s duck and goose populations, determining the minimal inhibitory concentration (MIC) of 27 samples collected from 15 different locations. The results indicate that the isolated strains were susceptible to most antibiotics, except for notable resistance to enrofloxacin. These findings support that Pasteurella multocida largely retained its susceptibility. However, the observed resistance to enrofloxacin suggests overuse of fluoroquinolones, which indicates the potential need for stricter regulation of their use in the poultry industry.
... Innate immunity is also important in confronting respiratory pathogens and the respiratory system exploits cilia, mucus and phagocytic cells as parts of the innate immune system to fight back against infections (Gray et al., 2021); in fact, proper functions of cilia in the upper respiratory tract and mucociliary clearance are important as the first line of defence against opportunistic bacteria (Jackwood et al., 2015). It has been previously described that certain macrolide antibiotics (ABs) (Takeyama et al., 1993) as well as ciprofloxacin (Takemura et al., 1996) increase the ciliary beat frequency of rabbit-cultured tracheal epithelium, whereas macrolides can decrease mucus secretion by the nasal epithelium of rats (Shimizu et al., 2003). ...
Background
Effect of antibacterials on mucociliary system and clinical outcome of chickens with mixed viral respiratory conditions is not properly addressed.
Objective
We evaluated enrofloxacin effects on clinical parameters and mucociliary system of broilers challenged with H9N2/IB viruses.
Methods
Broilers (105), at the age of 25 days, were randomly allocated into three groups: Group 1 (negative control), no treatment; Group 2 (positive control [PC]) challenged by intranasal and intraocular route. Group 3 (antibiotic [AB]‐treated) challenged and also received enrofloxacin started after manifestation of clinical signs (day 2 post‐challenge [pc]) and continued for 5 days.
Results
Administration of AB was not associated with appreciable changes in body weight, feed conversion ratio (FCR) or the severity of clinical signs although it slightly reduced mortality rate as compared to PC group (p > 0.05). Virus shedding period and number of virus positive tracheal and caecal tonsil samples were also statistically similar between PC and AB groups. In necropsy, the most profound effect of AB was decreased pleuropneumonia severity score on day 12 pc. Histopathological lesion scores were statistically the same between PC and AB groups. However, the administration of AB increased the number of tracheal goblet cells, with no effect on ciliostasis.
Conclusions
We found a weak positive effect of enrofloxacin administration in H9N2/IB‐infected chickens. Considering the risks of AB treatment in broiler chickens, the results of this small‐scale study do not encourage the benefit of enrofloxacin use in these viral diseases.
