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![The number of end-of-life tyres in eight states of Australia; New South Wales (NSW), Victoria (VIC), Queensland (QLD), South Australia (SA), Western Australia (WA), Tasmania (TAS), Northern Territory (NT), and Australian Capital Territory (ACT) [7].](publication/309514136/figure/fig1/AS:422501579792401@1477743634949/The-number-of-end-of-life-tyres-in-eight-states-of-Australia-New-South-Wales-NSW.png)
The number of end-of-life tyres in eight states of Australia; New South Wales (NSW), Victoria (VIC), Queensland (QLD), South Australia (SA), Western Australia (WA), Tasmania (TAS), Northern Territory (NT), and Australian Capital Territory (ACT) [7].
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This article provides a review of different methods for managing waste tyres. Around 1.5 billion scrap tyres make their way into the environmental cycle each year, so there is an extreme demand to manage and mitigate the environmental impact which occurs from landfilling and burning. Numerous approaches are targeted to recycle and reuse the tyre ru...
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... 55 million tyres are expected to reach their end of use by the end of 2014, and it is also projected that this number will be considerably enhanced by 2020. Figure 1 shows the number of end-of-life tyres (equivalent to passenger car tyres) in different areas including metropolitan, regional, and also remote areas of each state of Australia [7]. To effectively deal with the end-of-life tyre disposal issue, the issue requires substantial funding. ...
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Citations
... Additionally, this charcoal contains various impurities, including application tools, iron filings, zinc, and sulphur, the latter of which can account for up to 6 % by mass [10]. The potential applications of this charcoal include its use as a primary fuel component in solidified fuels, such as in grate boilers [11]. Furthermore, the inherent characteristics of the char, including surface area, component content, and volatile components, render it a promising candidate for use as a pigment or filler in rubber applications. ...
... Calcium hydroxide, Ca(OH) 2 (10), in the flue gases, decomposes through dehydration at temperatures above 400 °C, releasing water. The CaO that is formed exothermically reacts in the kiln with SO 2 , producing a thermodynamically stable product -anhydrite CaSO 4 (mineral) (11). ...
The escalating accumulation of waste tyres necessitates the formulation of robust and economically sustainable waste management strategies. In response to this pressing concern, pyrolysis has emerged as a pivotal technology for tyre recycling, affording valuable by-products including charcoal, pyrolysis oil, and pyrolysis gas, contingent upon specific process parameters. Of particular significance is the valorisation of the solid fraction resulting from tyre pyrolysis, which holds promise for the reintroduction of this raw material into various production processes. This study explores three distinct processes aimed at enhancing the quality of carbonaceous materials: (1) heat treatment, which results in the remarkable reduction of volatile fractions by up to 94 %; (2) zinc leaching using a 20 % NaOH solution, achieving 59 % zinc extraction for potential electrochemical recovery; and (3) sulphur binding through CaCO 3 washing, effectively capturing 95 % of the sulphur content and mitigating SO x emissions. The paper comprehensively outlines the advantages and limitations of these proposed solutions, while providing an in-depth evaluation of potential applications for charcoal based on the specific treatment methods used. The findings presented herein make a substantial contribution to the advancement of sustainable techniques for the valorisation of waste tyres, thereby bolstering environmental conservation efforts and fostering resource efficiency within industrial applications.
... Rubber extracted from waste tyres, commonly called crumb rubber (CR), can be used in concrete as a partial replacement for aggregate, reducing its carbon footprint [1]. Several researchers [2]- [12] investigated rubberised concrete properties containing percentages of CR with findings related to low density and the possibility of utilising it against impact resistance loads. ...
... Material recovery option for tires is crucial because tires may contain up to 60% of fossil fuel originated raw materials (Rowhani and Rainey 2016). In order to save the world's limited fossil feedstock, recycling of rubber and its use in newly prepared rubber compounds will be the most efficient option (Wisniewska et al. 2022). ...
This study focused on a new approach for valorization of both ground tire rubber (GTR) and nitrate-containing wastewater via simultaneous devulcanization and denitrification. Initially, sulfur-based autotrophic denitrifiers were successfully enriched from three different seed sludge sources, biological nutrient removal (BNR) sludge, anaerobic digester sludge and BNR sludge of a leather organized industrial zone WWTP. Average nitrate removal efficiencies were 96–98%. Biological devulcanization (biodevulcanization) of GTR was later investigated with these enriched cultures. Results revealed that biodevulcanization was only achieved with the culture enriched from BNR sludge of the leather organized industrial zone WWTP, as 3.9% sulfur removal (desulfurization efficiency). Metal sulfate precipitation was speculated to cause an underestimation of the desulfurization ratio. Fourier-transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR) results demonstrated a decrease in the intensity of the C–S bonds and an increase in intensity of S–O bonds in treated GTR samples. This was attributed to the oxidation of sulfidic crosslinks, i.e. verification of biodevulcanization. This study indicated that simultaneous biodevulcanization and denitrification could be a promising process for valorization of both GTR and nitrate-containing wastewater which in turn would support circular economy and sustainable development.
... The fact that there are around 1.5 billion trash tires produced annually globally poses a serious threat to the environment, as evaluated by (Amir & Thomas, 2016). Waste tires are nonbiodegradable and despite recycling efforts, the majority of these tires get disposed off as landfills or are discarded without concern to the potential harm to the environment (Amir & Thomas, 2016). ...
... The fact that there are around 1.5 billion trash tires produced annually globally poses a serious threat to the environment, as evaluated by (Amir & Thomas, 2016). Waste tires are nonbiodegradable and despite recycling efforts, the majority of these tires get disposed off as landfills or are discarded without concern to the potential harm to the environment (Amir & Thomas, 2016). Lulu et al. (2020) observed that the majority of such tires end up in landfills or other garbage dumps. ...
This study evaluated the bioaccumulation of certain heavy metals of waste burnt tire residues (WBTRs) in certain organs (viz-gills, liver, kidney and muscles) of Clarias gariepinus following exposure to sublethal concentrations (SLCs) of water-soluble fractions (WSFs) of WBTRs. Clarias gariepinus (average weight of 47.95±0.34g and length of 15.54±0.36cm) were exposed to SLCs at different concentrations (0.00, 0.23, 0.47, 0.94, 1.87, and3.74 ppm) of WSFs of WBTRs for a period of fifty-eight days. Heavy metal concentrations in WBTRs and in the organs of the experimental fish were measured using a handheld X-Ray Fluorescence Analyzer (NitonXL3T). Results showed that strontium, lead, zinc, cobalt, bismuth, rubidium, gold, tungsten, iron, thorium, arsenic, copper, and niobium were detected in WBTRs although the maximum level of zinc was perceived however, no significant difference (P>0.05) was observed as compared to the control group regarding heavy metal accumulation in muscles, 53.10±12.78; liver, 56.30±76.96; kidney, 164.54±12.78; and gills, 241.36±146.87 of the exposed fish. The high levels of heavy metals present in WBTRs are of great concern as potential detrimentl pollutants to the aquatic ecosystem. These allochthonous inputs get into the aquatic ecosystem through sewage flow and runoffs effluents. Resident non-target communities particularly fishes from such polluted aquatic systems with WBTRs become vunerable and incriminated with attendant high levels of heavy metals that could be detrimental to human consumers.
... Additionally, these wastes are highly sensitive to temperature, so the accumulation of large quantities of waste tires heightens the risk of spontaneous combustion, seriously impacting the environmental safety and health, and facilitating the spread of pests and diseases. Therefore, the treatment and recycling of waste tires have become an important environmental protection industry, with the market value expected to exceed USD 9 billion by 2025 [2,3]. How to efficiently and economically apply these tire waste materials has become a major issue facing the world [4,5]. ...
Rubberized cement-based materials are widely utilized because of their good ductility, impact resistance, and fatigue resistance. This research investigated the effect of the rubber aggregates content, particle size of rubber aggregates, and water–cement ratio on the early-age mechanical properties and deformation behaviors of mortar through laboratory tests, and strength reduction coefficient fitting models were established according to the testing results. The results show that the compressive strength growth rate of cement mortar is about 15% slower than that of flexural strength. The existence of rubber aggregates lowers the strength increase rate of mortar. The reduction coefficient of strength decreases with increasing rubber aggregates content and increases with the age of mortar. Increasing rubber aggregates content and decreasing particle size of rubber aggregate can lower the autogenous shrinkage in the initial stage, but the autogenous shrinkage of the later stage increases as the rubber aggregates content increases, with a turning point between 30 h and 50 h. After 3 days, the dry shrinkage of mortar accounts for about 70–80% of the total shrinkage, and it increases with higher rubber aggregate content, smaller particle size of rubber aggregates, and higher water–cement ratios.
... Effectively managing waste tyres can lead to waste reduction, resource conservation, cost savings, and enhanced sustainability. Different approaches are employed to handle waste tyres, such as energy recovery, reuse or retreading, utilizing tyres as fuel, pyrolysis, landfill disposal, and material recovery [9], [10], [11], [12], [13], [14], [15]. ...
The influence of fibres on the compressive strength of concrete is complex and is determined by the type, quantity, and characteristics of the fibres utilized in designing and forming the concrete. Designing fibre reinforced concrete (FRC) constituents is challenging and affects the concrete's performance and practicality. This study utilized response surface methodology (RSM) to optimize the properties of concrete containing steel fibre extracted from end-of-life tyres (ELTs). Face-cantered central composite design (FC-CCD) of RSM was used in the design of experiments (DOE) with aspect ratio (10-70) and volume fraction (0.5 % - 1.2 %) as the input variables. Three levels of each variable were used in forming the design matrix. The resulting concretes were then tested for slump and compressive strength at 7 and 28 days of curing. As the aspect ratio and volume fraction increased, slump values decreased, and 7- and 28-day compressive strength increased up to an aspect ratio of 45 and 1.0% volume fraction. Beyond an aspect ratio of 45 and 1.0% volume fraction, a declining trend in compressive strength at all curing ages was observed. The Analysis of Variance (ANOVA) revealed that the variables volume fraction and aspect ratio significantly affect the variability in the FRC models, with all models being statistically significant at the 95% level across all factor levels. A numerical optimization method was used to determine the optimal mix proportions for ELTFRC. The optimum response values were achieved by combining a 1.01% volume fraction and a 33.86 aspect ratio, resulting in a desirability of 0.73.
... Improper disposal practices exacerbate risks such as fire hazards, and they create breeding grounds for rodents, mosquitoes, and other pests, which can threaten human health. In recent years, research has focused on the potential of incorporating waste tyre rubber into construction materials as a sustainable solution to these environmental issues [3,4,5,6] . One notable application is the use of crumb rubber in road construction, which not only aids in managing waste tyres but also reduces carbon emissions and energy consumption compared to conventional asphalt [7,2] . ...
... The categorywise production details of the tyre in 2022 in India are given in Table 1 [6]. It is estimated that over 1.5 billion metric tonnes of tyres are discarded yearly worldwide [9,10]. It is estimated that over 30.9 million tonnes of end-of-life tyres have been produced globally in 2019 [12,13]. ...
... Furthermore, the internal construction of tyres should be checked by an X-ray. To retread tyres, natural rubber (NR), styrene-butadiene rubber (SBR), polybutadiene rubber (PBR), and chloroprene rubber (CR) or special applications are commonly used [9]. ...
The tyre waste is growing with the increase in population and motorisation. There are billions of scrap tyres available all around the world. Because of its non-biodegradability, tyre waste disposal has become an environmental challenge in many developing nations, such as India. Therefore, proper management is required to handle this issue in an economically feasible and environmentally friendly manner. The Government of India has framed rules for producers and recyclers for proper waste tyre management in past years. Almost negligible research has been carried out on waste tyre management in India. In the present study, an attempt has been made to review the situation of tyre waste management, the compliance of the existing waste tyre pyrolysis plants, the development of policy and regulatory framework, opportunities, and challenges. The study found that 53.90% of tyre pyrolysis units are non-complying with government guidelines and need improved operations by adopting advanced features. Many waste tyre pyrolysis units were categorised into red, green, and orange categories based on the pollution index and a significant number of them were shut down. The study summarised the government of India's initiatives of introducing the extended producers responsibility (EPR) principle in 2022 in addition to the existing free market system (FMS) to improve the waste tire management system. Furthermore, the study suggests that implementation of EPR, launching of the EPR portal, upgradation of pyrolysis plants, adherence to the rules by the stakeholders and creation of awareness among rural communities about the scientific disposal of waste tyres are expected to increase the resource recovery rate and decrease the environmental and health problems in future. The outcomes of the study are helpful for future research and policymaking.
... Contemporary studies have conducted experimental studies to partially replace the aggregate with a dualpurpose option of absorbing a portion of around 2 billion tons/ year of solid waste going into sea/ landfill and to economically formulate eco-friendly concrete composites targeting improved mechanical properties by employing specific mixing ratios. The researchers have been using different percentages of cement replacement/ enhancement materials like pulverised fly ash, metakaolin, ground granulated blast furnace slag, palm ash, rice husk ash, the fibres like glass fibres, wheat straw, polypropylene fibres, steel fibres, and fine/ coarse aggregate replacements like crushed/ shredded glass, crumb rubber, crushed/ shredded PET bottles, shredded tyres and recycled concrete aggregates as economic/ eco-friendly considerations [24][25][26][27][28][29][30][31][32][33][34][35][36][37][38][39][40]. ...
The construction industry is a key CO2 contributor. Contemporary research focuses on formulating cement replacement composites; however, less attention is deliberated to formulating fine/coarse aggregate replacement composites. The waste from different fields contributes enormously to adverse environmental effects, thus necessitating reuse/recycling. The demolition/reconstruction of old buildings/infrastructure is adding further to the waste contribution by the construction industry. The total quantum of fine/coarse aggregate in the construction industry is estimated to be around 20 billion tons, contributing around a billion tons of CO2. Therefore, even partial replacement of virgin sand/coarse aggregates with various waste materials like glass, rubber, plastic, tyres, recycled concrete and others will economise the cost of manufacturing the concrete with reduced CO2 footprints as eco-friendly materials. This study conducted a comparative analysis for investigation of the characteristic compressive and split tensile strength of concrete composites with partial replacement of virgin sand/coarse aggregate by 10-30% of Crushed Glass (CG), Crumb Rubber (CR), Recycled PET Bottles (RPB), Recycled Concrete Aggregate (RCA) and 5-10% of Shredded Tyres (ST). Generally, all the composites demonstrated par/ better strength with the control mix, achieving the target strength of C55/67 concrete. The composites with CG, RPB and RCA exhibited an improvement in compressive strength, attaining more than 70 MPa (high-performance concrete strength) and up to 10% improvement in split tensile, attaining 4.3 MPa. CR and 5-10% ST exhibited a slight decrease in compressive strengths. All the composites formulated in this study explicate their diverse uses for multipurpose infrastructural applications in the construction industry as improved, economical, eco-friendly waste absorbent composites.
... The result found that the activated carbon exhibited a larger surface area compared to pyrolysed char. End-of-life (EOL) tyres can be efficiently transformed into AC, allowing for the extraction of approximately 30-60% black carbon through the thermochemical decomposition via In general, the primary components of a tyre are a mixture of natural rubber, butadiene rubber, and synthetic rubber [15]. The rubber mixture is vulcanised with various additives (sulphur, zinc) and combined with various infill materials (carbon, steel, and textile fibres) to increase the tyre's rigidity and elasticity [16]. ...
... Since it takes approximately 100 years for tyres to naturally degrade, pyrolysis is a promising method for generating energy products from this waste. In general, the primary components of a tyre are a mixture of natural rubber, butadiene rubber, and synthetic rubber [15]. The rubber mixture is vulcanised with various additives (sulphur, zinc) and combined with various infill materials (carbon, steel, and textile fibres) to increase the tyre's rigidity and elasticity [16]. ...
Tyre waste is a common form of non-degradable polymer-based solid waste. This solid waste can be effectively managed by converting it into char through the pyrolysis process and then further converting the char into activated carbon (AC) through physical and chemical activation processes. Tyre-derived activated carbon (TDAC) has versatile applications, such as its use as an absorber, catalyst, and electrode material, among others. This study aims to review the electrochemical properties of TDAC. This study employed the PRISMA (Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta analysis) bibliographic search methodology, with a specific focus on the application of TDAC in a wide variety of energy storage devices, including lithium-ion batteries, sodium-ion batteries, potassium-ion batteries, and supercapacitors. In several experimental studies, TDAC was utilised as an electrode in numerous energy devices due to its high specific capacitance properties. The study found that both activation processes can produce AC with a surface area ranging from 400 to 900 m²/g. However, the study also discovered that the surface morphology of TDAC influenced the electrochemical behaviours of the synthesised electrodes.
