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The morphology of villi in the intestine. Olfactory receptor Olfr78 is shown in red. Other olfactory receptors that have been found are not indicated, as the specific cell types are not determined yet.
Source publication
Essential oils have been used in multiple ways, i.e., inhaling, topically applying on the skin, and drinking. Thus, there are three major routes of intake or application involved: the olfactory system, the skin, and the gastro-intestinal system. Understanding these routes is important for clarifying the mechanisms of action of essential oils. Here...
Contexts in source publication
Context 1
... to the skin, the epithelium of the intestine serves as a barrier, or provides host-immunity, between the internal and external environment, in addition to its function to absorb nutrients. Figure 4 shows the morphology of the villi of the intestine. A region called the crypt at the bottom of the villi possesses stem cells that function to maintain the villi. ...
Citations
... There are many phytochemicals with anti-inflammatory effects [213][214][215][216][217][218] that also have binding affinity with CYP enzymes [141,219,220]. Many of them have different overall profiles of receptors, channels, and enzymes that they interact with. ...
Cannabidiol (CBD) is one of the major phytochemical constituents of cannabis, Cannabis sativa, widely recognized for its therapeutic potential. While cannabis has been utilized for medicinal purposes since ancient times, its psychoactive and addictive properties led to its prohibition in 1937, with only the medical use being reauthorized in 1998. Unlike tetrahydrocannabinol (THC), CBD lacks psychoactive and addictive properties, yet the name that suggests its association with cannabis has significantly contributed to its public visibility. CBD exhibits diverse pharmacological properties, most notably anti-inflammatory effects. Additionally, it interacts with key drug-metabolizing enzyme families, including cytochrome P450 (CYP) and uridine 5′-diphospho-glucuronosyltransferase (UGT), which mediate phase I and phase II metabolism, respectively. By binding to these enzymes, CBD can inhibit the metabolism of co-administered drugs, which can potentially enhance their toxicity or therapeutic effects. Mild to moderate adverse events associated with CBD use have been reported. Advances in chemical formulation techniques have recently enabled strategies to minimize these effects. This review provides an overview of CBD, covering its historical background, recent clinical trials, adverse event profiles, and interactions with molecular targets such as receptors, channels, and enzymes. We particularly emphasize the mechanisms underlying its anti-inflammatory effects and interaction with drugs relevant to organ transplantation. Finally, we explore recent progress in the chemical formulation of CBD in order to enhance its bioavailability, which will enable decreasing the dose to use and increase its safety and efficacy.
... Each hair follicle goes through its cycle, with each hair follicle going through approximately 10-30 cycles in its lifetime. 21 The anagen cycle is the longest, lasting two to eight years in humans. The growth of the hair shaft from the follicle characterizes this phase. ...
Hair quality and health are important not only for the esthetical reasons but also to maintained the hair’s function in protecting the head. Carrot seed oil (CSO) is rich in vitamin A and beta-carotene, which influence hair quality. CSO also contains carotol, which has anti-fungal properties that treat dandruff. This research aimed to observe the potential of CSO as a hair growth promoter. Twenty male rats were used in the study, with their backs shaved and divided into two areas, each with different frequencies of CSO application. The backs of the rats were given CSO every day for 14 consecutive days with different concentrations, i.e., 25%, 50%, and 75%. Hair growth was assessed based on its length, root, shaft, and tip thickness on days 9,12, and 14 and the results were recorded. On day 15, the rats were euthanized and their skin was collected to observe the number of follicles. Results showed that the application of CSO with different concentrations had no effect on hair length growth but it did affect the thickness of the root, shaft, and tip of the hair, with the best concentration being 75%. The frequency of application did not seem to affect the growth in terms of the length or thickness of the root, shaft, and tip of the hair; however, the application of CSO with 75% concentration and an application frequency of once a day produced the best amount of follicle regeneration.
... Absorption: With aging, gastrointestinal motility and blood flow may decrease, potentially leading to slower absorption rates of geraniol. Additionally, age-related changes in gastric pH and enzymatic activity can affect the breakdown and absorption of orally administered geraniol (91). Distribution: Older adults often have increased body fat and decreased lean body mass, which can alter the distribution of lipophilic compounds like geraniol. ...
Geraniol, a naturally occurring monoterpenoid found in essential oils of several aromatic plants, exhibits numerous therapeutic properties, including anti-inflammatory, antimicrobial, and anticancer activities. However, its therapeutic potential is hindered by poor water solubility, limited bioavailability, and rapid metabolism. Nanotechnology- based delivery systems offer a promising solution to these challenges, by enhancing the solubility, stability, and bioavailability of geraniol through advanced delivery systems in cancer treatment. This review critically examines recent advances in nanotechnology- based delivery systems for geraniol, exploring various nanocarriers such as liposomes, polymeric nanoparticles, dendrimers, and solid lipid nanoparticles. The review also highlights the mechanisms by which these nanocarriers improve geraniol's pharmacokinetic profile, its targeted delivery to cancer cells, and its impact on overcoming multidrug resistance. Future perspectives and potential clinical applications are discussed, emphasizing the need for further research to fully harness the potential of geraniol in cancer therapy.
... Absorption: With aging, gastrointestinal motility and blood flow may decrease, potentially leading to slower absorption rates of geraniol. Additionally, age-related changes in gastric pH and enzymatic activity can affect the breakdown and absorption of orally administered geraniol (91). Distribution: Older adults often have increased body fat and decreased lean body mass, which can alter the distribution of lipophilic compounds like geraniol. ...
Geraniol, a naturally occurring monoterpenoid found in essential oils of several aromatic plants, exhibits numerous therapeutic properties, including anti-inflammatory, antimicrobial, and anticancer activities. However, its therapeutic potential is hindered by poor water solubility, limited bioavailability, and rapid metabolism. Nanotechnology-based delivery systems offer a promising solution to these challenges, by enhancing the solubility, stability, and bioavailability of geraniol through advanced delivery systems in cancer treatment. This review critically examines recent advances in nanotechnology-based delivery systems for geraniol, exploring various nanocarriers such as liposomes, polymeric nanoparticles, dendrimers, and solid lipid nanoparticles. The review also highlights the mechanisms by which these nanocarriers improve geraniol's pharmacokinetic profile, its targeted delivery to cancer cells, and its impact on overcoming multidrug resistance. Future perspectives and potential clinical applications are discussed, emphasizing the need for further research to fully harness the potential of geraniol in cancer therapy.
... The gaseous exchange takes place in the alveoli, so the bioactive molecules dissolve into the respiratory epithelium of the alveoli, thus it can enter into the bloodstream. [21] Which is illustrated in Figure 3. ...
Background
Kulisam is an unexplored therapy of Siddha paediatrics. In which an amulet is prepared with medicinal herbs, metals and some animal product. Most of the herbal ingredients of Kulisam contain essential oils. It enters the body through the skin inhalation and ingestion routes, it gets mixed with the circulation and cures the specified diseases thus acting as a therapeutic agent.
Materials and Methods
The data were obtained from Siddha classics such as, TV Sambasivam Pillai dictionary, Kuzhandhai maruthuvam , Vaazhai vagadam and various research articles searched in Pubmed, Google Scholar and Science Direct through specific keywords.
Result and Discussion
The herbal and metal amulets used in Siddha pediatrics have been explored with the help of science. Therefore, Kulisam can act as a potent therapeutic, pharmaceutical and, nutraceutical tool for Siddha paediatrics. For a long period of time the unique therapy of Siddha system of medicine – Kulisamaadal has been alienated due to the unexplored science base behind it and a lack of research in this aspect, it's left as an unexplored treasure. Having a significant scientific base behind further research on this aspect will take Siddha pediatrics to the next level.
Conclusion
Kulisam is a therapeutic tool of Siddha paediatrics. Being an unexplored therapy of the Siddha system, it is essential to conduct further studies and research on this aspect.
... Subsequently, the signals are transmitted to mitral cells and tufted cells contacting the olfactory bulb and are relayed to the pyramidal neurons in the olfactory cortex, where the signals further stimulate the frontal lobe of the brain, ultimately reaching the limbic system. The limbic system can trigger emotional responses via the amygdala, stimulating the autonomic nervous system in the hypothalamus, thereby affecting the functions of various organs and so forth [74]. ...
... Additionally, depression and anxiety are commonly observed in AD patients, with reports of resistance to antipsychotic drug therapy and the emergence of severe side effects, particularly anxiety, agitation, or depression during late-stage treatment [73]. Aromatherapy, as a natural therapy, utilizes aromatic molecules from plants that exert pharmacological effects upon inhalation, acting through both the blood and neural pathways, with emotional regulation being a prominent effect [73,74]. ...
Alzheimer’s disease (AD) is a neurodegenerative disorder that is projected by the WHO to affect over 100 million people by 2050. Clinically, AD patients undergoing long-term antipsychotic treatment often experience severe anxiety or depression in later stages. Furthermore, early-stage AD manifests with weakened α waves in the brain, progressing to diminished α and β waves in late-stage disease, reflecting changes in emotional states and disease progression. In this study, EEG signal analysis revealed that inhalation of Dalbergia pinnata (Lour.) Prain essential oil (DPEO) enhanced δ, θ, α and β wave powers in the frontal and parietal lobes, with a rising trend in the β–α ratio in the temporal lobe. These findings suggest an alleviation of anxiety and an enhancement of cognitive functions. Treatment of the AD SH-SY5Y (human neuroblastoma cells) cell model with DPEO resulted in decreased intracellular levels of Aβ, GSK-3β, P-Tau, IL-1β, TNF-α, IL-6, COX-2, OFR, and HFR, alongside reduced AchE and BchE activities and increased SOD activity. Network pharmacology analysis indicated a potential pharmacological mechanism involving the JAK-STAT pathway. Our study provides evidence supporting DPEO’s role in modulating anxiety and slowing AD pathological progression.
... In the skin and digestive systems, the chemical components of the essential oil can directly activate the gamma-aminobutyric acid (GABA) receptor and the transient receptor potential channel (TRP) channel. In the olfactory system, the chemical components interact with the olfactory receptors to initiate a signaling pathway (Koyama and Heinbockel 2020). A recent report has identified GABRA1 neurons in the peroration as being critical for influenza-induced disease behaviors in mice. ...
... The ingested manner of essential oils has been shown to result in disparate effects (Qu et al. 2023). Consequently, an understanding of these pathways is essential for elucidating the mechanisms of action of essential oils (Koyama and Heinbockel 2020). In this chapter, we provide a concise overview of the diverse administration methods, research aims, and animal species involved in the study of essential oils (see Table 3). ...
The rise in viral infections has presented a multitude of public health concerns on a global scale, including the emergence of influenza and SARS-CoV-2. The emergence of drug-resistant virus strains has underscored the paramount importance of expedited research in the development of novel antiviral therapeutics. It has led to a surge in interest in the potential application of essential oils (EOs) as antiviral agents, owing to their noteworthy antiviral efficacy. A considerable number of EOs and their components have demonstrated promising antiviral activities in vitro and in vivo research. This review provided an overview of the various aspects of EOs inhibiting viruses, including plant sources, the different delivery methods, current challenges and strategies for developing drugs, and in-depth discussions on the relevant mechanisms. It concisely explores the antiviral mechanisms of EOs, ranging from molecular docking simulations to in-depth cellular, animal, and human studies. EOs demonstrate antiviral potential by inhibiting viral proteins, disrupting replication, and modulating host cellular functions, immune responses, and nervous system interactions. This review serves as a valuable resource for researchers and pharmaceutical entities, offering insights and references that advance the antiviral research and innovative drug development utilizing plant-derived essential oils.
Graphical abstract
... Medicinal plants contain essential oils (EOs), secondary metabolites of low molecular weight molecules often used as drugs, aromas and fragrances, pharmaceutical products, agrochemicals, dyes and pigments, pesticides, cosmetics, food additives, among others (Alves- Çakmak et al. 2020;Toledo et al. 2020;Rocha et al. 2022). In the pharmacological point of view, terpenes stand out, namely gamma-terpinene (γ-terpinene, γ-TPN or 1-isopropyl-4-methylcyclohexa-1,4diene), a monoterpene found in "melaleuca" (Melaleuca alternifolia), "orégano" (Origanum vulgare), rosemary (Rosmarinus officinalis L.), thyme (Thymus vulgaris Marchand), tangerine (Citrus delicious), and eucalyptus (Eucalyptus sp.) (Silva et al. 2015;Ramalho et al. 2016;Baldissera et al. 2016;Khan et al. 2020;Xu et al. 2020; Koyama and Heinbockel 2020;Mota 2022). ...
Gamma-terpinene (γ-TPN) is a cyclohexane monoterpene isolated from plant essential oils, such as tea tree (Melaleuca alternifolia), oregano (Origanum vulgare), rosemary (Rosmarinus officinalis L.), thyme (Thymus vulgaris Marchand), and eucalyptus (Eucalyptus sp.). Terpenes are widely studied molecules pharmacologically active on the cardiovascular system, hemostasis, and antioxidant actions. Herein, it was investigated the cytotoxic and antiplatelet activity of γ-TPN using different non-clinical laboratory models. For in silico evaluation, the PreADMET, SwissADME, and SwissTargetPrediction softwares were used. Molecular docking was performed using the AutoDockVina and BIOVIA Discovery Studio databases. The cytotoxicity of γ-TPN was analyzed by the MTT assay upon normal murine endothelial SVEC4-10 and fibroblast L-929 cells. Platelet aggregation was evaluated with platelet-rich (PRP) and platelet-poor (PPP) plasma from spontaneously hypertensive rats (SHR), in addition to SVEC4-10 cells pre-incubated with γ-TPN (50, 100, and 200 µM) for 24 h. SHR animals were pre-treated by gavage with γ-TPN for 7 days and divided into four groups (negative control, 25, 50, and 100 mg/kg). Blood samples were collected to measure nitrite using the Griess reagent. Gamma-TPN proved to be quite lipid-soluble (Log P = +4.50), with a qualified profile of similarity to the drug, good bioavailability, and adequate pharmacokinetics. It exhibited affinity mainly for the P2Y12 receptor (6.450 ± 0.232 Kcal/mol), moderate cytotoxicity for L-929 (CC50 = 333.3 µM) and SVEC 4-10 (CC50 = 366.7 µM) cells. The presence of γ-TPN in SVEC 4-10 cells was also able to reduce platelet aggregation by 51.57 and 44.20% at lower concentrations (50 and 100 µM, respectively). Then, γ-TPN has good affinity with purinergic receptors and an effect on the reversal of platelet aggregation and oxidative stress, being promising and safe for therapeutic targets and subsequent studies on the control of thromboembolic diseases.
... Initially, when considering the routes of ingestion and application of essential oils, it's pivotal to understand how these substances interact with the body through olfactory, topical, and oral routes. Each pathway has unique mechanisms of action, influencing the effects of essential oils and terpenes [8]. In olfactory route, the inhalation of essential oils sends signals directly to the brain via the olfactory system. ...
Aromatherapy, the therapeutic application of essential oils extracted from plants, has emerged as a prominent practice in complementary and alternative medicine. Essential oils, renowned for their aromatic compounds, are utilized in a variety of therapeutic modalities to enhance physical, emotional, and mental health. Understanding the administration routes of essential oils is crucial for maximizing their therapeutic potential and ensuring safety. The method of administration—whether inhalation, topical application, or ingestion—significantly influences the absorption, distribution, and efficacy of the bioactive compounds in essential oils. For instance, inhalation directly interacts with the olfactory system, potentially impacting mood and stress levels, while topical application facilitates localized effects and transdermal absorption, providing targeted therapeutic benefits. Ingestion, though less common, requires careful consideration due to the potent nature and potential toxicity of essential oils. This paper emphasizes the importance of selecting the appropriate administration route based on desired outcomes and safety considerations. It also explores the concept of synergy, where the interaction of multiple essential oil constituents can enhance therapeutic effects, exemplified by the compounds in lavender and eucalyptus oils. This study highlights the challenges in aromatherapy research, including the need for standardization, quality assurance, and rigorous methodological approaches to validate the therapeutic efficacy of essential oils.
... Terpenoids have a substantial effect on human health due to their utility in the pharmaceutical industry [14,16,20,[113][114][115][116] and their abundance in bioactive components [112]. Numerous studies have emphasized the vast range of biological and pharmacological activities that demonstrate the activity shown by terpenoids has a significant role in the creation and development of new medications and improvements in available treatment choices [15,17,24,25,39,52,92,111,112,[117][118][119][120]. ...
