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The main bike measurements: saddle height, saddle back, crank arm length, vertical distance between the top of the saddle and the handlebar ’ s brake (Handlebar-V) and distance between the front of the saddle and the middle of the handlebars (Handlebar-D).
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The purpose of this study was to compare the pedalling technique in road cyclists of different competitive levels. Eleven professional, thirteen elite and fourteen club cyclists were assessed at the beginning of their competition season. Cyclists’ anthropometric characteristics and bike measurements were recorded. Three sets of pedalling (200, 250...
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... Additionally, to the best of our knowledge, no study reported the effects of training on pedalling technique, which could be important when com- paring cyclists of different competitive levels and with different training volume along the season. Therefore, the main purpose of this study was to compare the pedalling technique (kinematic and kinetic analysis) in cyclists of different competitive levels (professional, elite and club), taking into account the above-mentioned aspects. Secondarily, the effects of pedalling power output (200, 250 and 300 W) and the preseason training (professional cyclists) on the pedalling technique were analysed. Thirty-eight road cyclists participated in this study (Table 1) and were classified into three groups or categories accord- ing to previous conventions (Ansley & Cangley, 2009): Category 1, professional cyclists from a UCI ProTour team ( n = 11), which cycled more than 30,000 km per season, in training and competition; Category 2, elite cyclists from a UCI Continental team ( n = 13), which cycled between 15,000 and 30,000 km per season; and Category 3, club cyclists belonging to different competition teams ( n = 14), which cycled between 5000 and 15,000 km per season. All of them participated voluntarily and none reported any medical pro- blem at the time of the study. They were informed of the procedures, methods, benefits and possible risks involved in the study, and written consent was obtained before starting the study. It was approved by the University Ethics Committee and met the requirements of the Declaration of Helsinki for research on human beings. All cyclists were assessed at the beginning of their competition season (February – March). Additionally, nine of the professional cyclists were assessed at the beginning of their preseason (November), after a month off training. During the preseason, the professional cyclists performed a progression on the total training volume from 15 to 30 h per week. Training contents were divided in two main blocks: endurance training and strength training. For endurance training, the cyclists performed a polarised training intensity distribution; ~80%, ~15% and ~5% of total training volume were performed at low (below the ventilatory threshold), moderate (between the ventilatory and respiratory compensation thresholds) and hard intensities (above the respiratory compensation threshold), respectively. The strength training was performed 2 days per week during 4 weeks, and consisted of 3 phases: general (circuit training), general explosive (squat training) and specific (starts and sprints on the bike). During this period, their maximum power output during a ramp protocol (1-min stages) increased from 5.77 ± 0.33 to 7.13 ± 0.63 W · kg − 1 , and their respiratory compensation threshold increased from 4.29 ± 0.40 to 5.31 ± 0.36 W · kg − 1 . The training during the preseason for the elite and club cyclists was not monitored, and their physical fitness was not evaluated. The assessment protocol was performed in a one-day session under similar environmental conditions (20 – 25°C, 60 – 65% relative humidity). The cyclists arrived at the laboratory (800 m altitude) with their bikes after a 24-h period with no hard training. Firstly, the cyclists ’ anthropometrical characteristics and bikes were measured. After this, the bikes ’ measurements (crank inclusive) and the clipless pedals were replicated in the cycle ergometer, where the cyclists performed a 10-min warm- up period at a power output of 100 W, with a 5-min rest before starting the test. The test consisted in three sets of 5- min pedalling at 200, 250 and 300 W with a 6-min rest in between. These power outputs were selected because they are representative of the effort in professional road cyclists (Vogt et al., 2007) and could be sustained by club cyclists during a short period of time (Pinot & Grappe, 2011). The cyclists received continuous feedback about their cadence and were asked to keep it constant at 90 rpm to avoid any possible influence of cadence on the mechanical variables of pedalling (Neptune & Herzog, 1999). The selected cadence is representative of the seated pedalling cadence during flat stages (Rodríguez-Marroyo, García-Lopez, Villa, & Córdova, 2008; Vogt et al., 2007). Simultaneous kinematic and kinetic analyses of pedalling were performed during the three sets of effort. The position during riding was standardised, with the cyclists ’ hands on the brakes. An anthropometric tape (Holtain Ltd, Crymych, UK) and a Harpenden anthropometer (CMS Instruments, London, UK) were used to measure both bike and anthropometric dimensions. All anthropometric measurements were performed by the same researcher following the international guidelines for anthropometry (Marfell-Jones, Olds, Stewart, & Carter, 2006). Inseam length of the cyclists was recorded as the distance from the ischium to the floor (Ferrer-Roca et al., 2012). Next, the main bike measurements were recorded (Figure 1). The relative saddle height (expressed in percentage) was calculated by dividing the saddle height by the inseam length (Gregor et al., 1991). Kinetic analysis was performed on a validated electromag- netically braked cycle ergometer (Lode Excalibur Sport, Lode BV, Groningen, Netherlands) (Reiser, Meyer, Kindermann, & Daugs, 2000), which allowed the measurement of the torque exerted on the left and right cranks independently every 2° of a complete revolution (Dorel, Couturier, & Hug, 2009; Hansen, Rønnestad, Vegge, & Raastad, 2012). Before starting the study, a dynamic calibration procedure was performed (Calibrator 2000, Lode BV, Groningen, Netherlands). Sixty essays between 25 – 2000 W of pedalling power and 40 – 120 rpm of pedalling cadence were compared (Calibrator 2000 vs Lode Excalibur Sport). The torque measurements showed a coefficient of variation of 0.96 ± 1.20% (95% of confidence interval between 0.72% and 1.19%), and an intraclass correlation coefficient of 0.999 ( P < 0.001). Besides, the zero adjustment was done before each testing session. All complete 5-min intervals of the three sets of pedalling were recorded (LEM software, Lode BV, Groningen, Netherlands). For the kinetic analysis, the mean of ~360 complete revolutions from minute one to minute five were selected, and values of right and left cranks were averaged (Figure 2). The following mechanical variables were directly obtained from the software: pedalling rate, maximum torque and minimum torque. Additionally, torque-time data and crank arm length were exported to ASCII format to calculate the rest of the mechanical variables: positive impulse, negative impulse and the relationship between both variables. This relationship is represented as the positive impulse proportion (expressed in ...
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... length of the cyclists was recorded as the distance from the ischium to the floor (Ferrer-Roca et al., 2012). Next, the main bike measurements were recorded ( Figure 1). The relative saddle height (expressed in percentage) was calcu- lated by dividing the saddle height by the inseam length ( Gregor et al., 1991). ...
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... A continuación, se dividirán los efectos sobre distintas variables biomecánicas, fisiológicas y comodidad de los estudios incluidos. García-López et al. (2016) compararon la técnica de pedaleo en cinética y cinemática de atletas de diferentes niveles deportivos (profesional, élite y de club, en orden jerárquico según distancia recorrida anual) junto con algunas características antropométricas y de bicicleta (talla, masa corporal, altura del sillín, etc.). No encontraron diferencias antropométricas ni de bicicleta según el nivel deportivo. ...
Resumen. Este capítulo da cuenta de artículos que en los últimos diez años han analizado los efectos del bikefit en la cinética, cinemática, aspectos fisiológicos y comodidad durante el pedaleo. Para tal fin, examinó 18 estudios que cumplieron con los criterios de inclusión y criterios de calidad, según la escala Downs & Black. A partir de los trabajos incluidos, llega a la conclusión de que el bikefit es una herramienta útil y necesaria para los atletas que practican ciclismo, ya que en ella pueden apreciarse vulnerabilidad ante el riesgo de lesión e incrementos del rendimiento deportivo. Destaca, finalmente, que el bikefit debería centrarse en la cinemática de las articulaciones, más que en la bicicleta de manera única.
... A continuación, se dividirán los efectos sobre distintas variables biomecánicas, fisiológicas y comodidad de los estudios incluidos. García-López et al. (2016) compararon la técnica de pedaleo en cinética y cinemática de atletas de diferentes niveles deportivos (profesional, élite y de club, en orden jerárquico según distancia recorrida anual) junto con algunas características antropométricas y de bicicleta (talla, masa corporal, altura del sillín, etc.). No encontraron diferencias antropométricas ni de bicicleta según el nivel deportivo. ...
Esta obra invita al lector al conocimiento de diferentes métodos de valoración, seguimiento y control de los efectos del ejercicio sobre el funcionamiento, biomecánica y forma corporal en diferentes poblaciones a través de la investigación científica. Fue desarrollada por investigadores, docentes y profesionales que han realizado un trabajo minucioso en la búsqueda de respuestas a las necesidades actuales desde un enfoque interdisciplinario, evidenciando hallazgos significativos para la comunidad académica en general. Su contenido se organiza en dos partes. La primera, denominada “entrenamiento y evaluación en el deporte” trata sobre prácticas y metodologías novedosas con el uso de herramientas tecnológicas y software que permiten identificar diferentes respuestas funcionales y morfológicas en la población estudio. La segunda, titulada “ejercicio físico y salud” se enfoca en los aportes del ejercicio como respuesta a la necesidad imperante de adelantar estudios que promuevan la salud en diferentes grupos poblacionales, presentando resultados en cuanto a cambios físicos, socioemocionales y comportamentales en contextos educativos, laborales y profesionales.
... Pedaling technique has been historically analyzed using different metrics, including the index of effectiveness (LaFortune & Cavanagh, 1983) and the positive impulse proportion (PIP; García-López et al., 2016). Both methods attempt to capture the magnitude of force or impulse that drives the crank in the direction of movement. ...
... Other studies demonstrated that cyclists present better force effectiveness than non-cyclists (Mornieux et al., 2008) but triathletes were similar to road cyclists (Bini, Hume, & Kilding, 2014). More recent evidence from García-López et al. (2016) illustrated that professional cyclists produced better PIP than cyclists with lower levels of performance. However, professional cyclists presented a different bike fitting than other cyclists, which could have an influence on these results. ...
... Also, it is unclear how much the muscles from hip and knee flexor groups could change their fiber type distribution to become more efficient and the time frames for these changes. In professional cyclists, PIP seems to reduce before preseason (García-López et al., 2016), which highlights a trainability component for this outcome. Future research could explore if, technique training has any potential to change efficiency at muscle level. ...
Training cycling technique has been popular among coaches, but limited evidence supports benefits from this practice in terms of performance. The use of pedal force effectiveness metrics is discussed, noting the limitations of these outcomes to truly reflect pedaling technique. This editorial discusses the potential discrepancies between optimal mechanics and biological constrains for cyclists to optimize pedaling technique. Current evidence on the conflicts between improved technique and performance is illustrated. Evidence on limitations from the neuromuscular system to direct forces and maximize power at the same time are discussed. Potential adaptations from key muscles to single-leg cycling and other forms of technique training are explored with acknowledgement on the current limitations from evidence in the literature, particularly around the lack of robust controlled trials. Recommendations to practitioners are provided suggesting allocating training time to other activities rather than technique for cyclists willing to improve performance.
... and recreational cyclists at 200 Watts. The information in this figure is derived from a study by García-Ló pez et al., (30) which demonstrated that professional cyclists produced lower peak torque during the downstroke, greater positive torque impulse, and lower negative torque and toque impulse than their recreational counterparts. ...
... Regardless of the coordinate system, it is very likely that an athlete's ability to express force in a more mechanically advantageous way for any sport (i.e., more torque for cycling, and more horizontal force for running) is more important than the ability to produce a high total force as observed in running (47) and cycling (30) studies. Based on the line of thinking that expression of force is important to sports performance, it is logical that an athlete should train in such a way to enhance this force orientation including during strength training. ...
... An illustration of pedaling technique differences between professional and recreation cyclists, as informed by García-Ló pez et al.(30). ...
The performance-enhancing effects of strength training on cycling are well documented with findings from research, demonstrating resistance training with heavy loads conducted 2–3 times per week for at least 8 weeks can improve power output (maximal and submaximal), extend time to exhaustion, and reduce completion time for set distances, while not adding to the total body mass. Despite the evident benefits of strength training, there remains a lack of consensus regarding the most effective exercises to enhance endurance cycling. This uncertainty is evident when considering movement-specific exercises to enhance dynamic transfer to cycling. A range of lower-limb exercises involving hip, knee, and ankle flexion and extension seems to enhance cycling performance more so than static or single-joint exercises. These improvements may be attributed to enhanced coordination and improved pedaling technique. This study presents 5 strength training exercises designed to target cycling pedaling quadrants and replicate the unilateral opposing nature of cycling (simultaneous flexion and extension of the legs) to enhance transfer from weight room-based strength training to the bike. These exercises are presented in example programs alongside established “traditional” exercises that may be used to guide the development of strength training for cyclists.
... Experienced unilateral amputee cyclists aim for more symmetrical power delivery, often in exchange for kinematic symmetry [11,15], contradicting the findings in this study. This is owing to better power output symmetry at higher workloads and cadences leading to lower metabolic costs, which affects endurance during the extended practice of cycling [22][23][24][25][26]. Elite amputee cyclists present familiarization with cycling practice and the use of prostheses at competitive levels, and use developed motor strategies and pedaling techniques that enable enhanced power output symmetry [12,14,15,27]. ...
Leg prostheses specially adapted for cycling in patients with transtibial amputation can be advantageous for recreational practice; however, their required features are not fully understood. Therefore, we aimed to evaluate the efficiency of unilateral cycling with a transtibial prosthesis and the characteristics of different attachment positions (middle and tip of the foot) between the prosthetic foot and the pedal. The cycling practice was performed on an ergometer at 40 W and 60 W resistance levels while participants (n = 8) wore custom-made orthoses to simulate prosthesis conditions. Using surface electromyogram, motion tracking, and power meter pedals, biomechanical data were evaluated and compared with data obtained through regular cycling. The results showed that power delivery became more asymmetrical at lower workloads for both orthosis conditions, while hip flexion and muscle activity of the knee extensor muscles in the sound leg increased. While both pedal attachment positions showed altered hip and knee joint angles for the leg wearing the orthosis, the middle of the foot attachment presented more symmetric power delivery. In conclusion, the middle of the foot attachment position presented better symmetry between the intact and amputated limbs during cycling performed for rehabilitation or recreation.
... Although there is lack of research into the effect of cycling profile (e.g., professional vs. recreational) on physiological responses during and after a ultra-endurance cycling event, it is known that cycling profile can affect pedaling kinematics, muscle recruitment, pedal forces and physiological outcomes (Bini et al., 2016;Chapman et al., 2008;Coyle et al., 1991;García-López et al., 2016). Due to the differences in profiles at ultra-endurance events, it would also be interesting to know ...
This study aimed to analyze the differences between clusters obtained by the acute effect of fatigue after an ultra-endurance event in the internal and external load of cyclists. 26 volunteers participated in the study, and they were divided into the experimental group (N = 18; height: 177 ± 8 cm; body mass: 78.6 ± 10.3 kg) and the control group (N = 8; height: 176 ± 10 cm; body mass: 78.0 ± 15.7 kg). The experimental group completed a 12 h non-stop cycling event. Jump height, lactate, plasma antioxidant capacity, pain perception and fatigue perception were measured before and after the event. Cyclists of the experimental group were classified considering their training characteristics (recreational vs. competitive) and by conducting a non-supervised K-means clustering. The differentiation of cyclists according to training characteristics resulted in a lower distance covered by recreational than competitive cyclists (279.4 ± 39.7 km vs. 371.0 ± 71.7 km; ES ≥ 0.8; p < 0.01), although no differences were observed in the remaining variables between groups (p > 0.05). The clustering analysis provided two clusters. Cluster 2 suffered a greater jump height reduction (-3.3 ± 1.6 vs. 1.2 ± 0.8; ES ≥ 0.8; p < 0.001) and increased pain and fatigue perception (ES ≥ 0.5; p < 0.05) after the race than Cluster 1. In conclusion, counter-movement jump can differentiate the fatigue produced by a cycling ultra-endurance event and therefore, this non-invasive technique is useful in fatigue monitoring and recovery planification.
... Moreover, since the first reports of pedal/crank force measurements [17,18], it has been assumed that top cyclists have a better power transmission to the pedals than recreational cyclists [19]. While most studies have found no performancerelated differences in strength parameters [20,21], a recent study reported higher IFE in professional cyclists compared to amateurs [22]. Methodological aspects can likely explain these contradictory results [22]. ...
... While most studies have found no performancerelated differences in strength parameters [20,21], a recent study reported higher IFE in professional cyclists compared to amateurs [22]. Methodological aspects can likely explain these contradictory results [22]. In previous studies, workloads were not adjusted to individual performance levels, so that inter-individual comparisons of muscular recruitment patterns may be biased [22]. ...
... Methodological aspects can likely explain these contradictory results [22]. In previous studies, workloads were not adjusted to individual performance levels, so that inter-individual comparisons of muscular recruitment patterns may be biased [22]. ...
In cycling, propulsion is generated by the muscles of the lower limbs and hips. After the first reports of pedal/crank force measurements in the late 1960s, it has been assumed that highly trained athletes have better power transfer to the pedals than recreational cyclists. However, motor patterns indicating higher levels of performance are unknown. To compare leg muscle activation between trained (3.5–4.2 W/kgbw) and highly trained (4.3–5.1 W/kgbw) athletes we applied electromyography, lactate, and bi-pedal/crank force measurements during a maximal power test, an individual lactate threshold test and a constant power test. We show that specific activation patterns of the rectus femoris (RF) and vastus lateralis (VL) impact on individual performance during high-intensity cycling. In highly trained cyclists, we found a strong activation of the RF during hip flexion. This results in reduced negative force in the fourth quadrant of the pedal cycle. Furthermore, we discovered that pre-activation of the RF during hip flexion reduces force loss at the top dead center (TDC) and can improve force development during subsequent leg extension. Finally, we found that a higher performance level is associated with earlier and more intense coactivation of the RF and VL. This quadriceps femoris recruitment pattern improves force transmission and maintains propulsion at the TDC of the pedal cycle. Our results demonstrate neuromuscular adaptations in cycling that can be utilized to optimize training interventions in sports and rehabilitation.
... Moreover, bicycle fitting would be different depending on different factors such as discipline (Bini et al., 2014a), gender (Encarnación-Martínez et al., 2021) and training level (García-López et al., 2016). A clear example of differences in bicycle fitting is the greater drop handlebars used by professional cyclists compared to recreational cyclists (García-López et al., 2016). ...
... Moreover, bicycle fitting would be different depending on different factors such as discipline (Bini et al., 2014a), gender (Encarnación-Martínez et al., 2021) and training level (García-López et al., 2016). A clear example of differences in bicycle fitting is the greater drop handlebars used by professional cyclists compared to recreational cyclists (García-López et al., 2016). Another example involves the use of bicycles for rehabilitation, which requires further guidelines when patients progress through the various stages of the rehabilitation process (e.g., improvements in the knee range of motion). ...
... 59 When the system only measures crank torque, the effectiveness of the pedalling technique is characterized by the PIP. 60 These authors reported values of around 83.7 ± 3.9% and 86.5 ± 4.5% for recreational and professional cyclists, respectively, at 90 rpm and at a power output between 200 and 300 W. It has been demonstrated that reducing crank arm length improves PIP by increasing tangential force during the upstroke. 61 However, to our knowledge, no study has related the dead centre size and pedal smoothness to cycling position. ...
The optimization of cycling position is essential to improve performance and prevent overuse injuries. Bike-fitting methods, based on biomechanical variables, have been proposed in the scientific literature. To facilitate and generalize their use, the bike-fitting industry has developed various technologies to study and analyze the cycling position. The vast majority of bike-fitting protocols are based on joint kinematics, which can be evaluated in laboratory with two- or three-dimensional motion analysis systems. Joint kinematics can also be assessed in outdoor conditions with inertial measurement units, but currently, these tools provide a limited number of variables compared to laboratory systems. In addition, the bike-fitting professional can analyse pedalling technique with pedal forces to understand the effects of the bike adjustments on pedalling effectiveness. To complete the biomechanical evaluation, pressure mapping sensors allow for the measurement of the pressure load and distribution on the interfaces between the cyclist and the bicycle to detect imbalances and choose bike components (e.g., saddle). To go further in the analysis, muscular activity can be assessed with surface electromyography sensors to detect imbalances or asymmetry. The aim of this literature overview is to clearly define the role of these technologies in a bike-fitting protocol and identify their characteristics and limitations while proposing perspectives for future developments. Therefore, this work is intended for bike-fitting professionals and coaches wishing to choose the most suitable technologies to study and improve the cycling position, and for the bike-fitting industry, in order to optimize existing technologies and help develop new concepts.
... Sedentary adults generally use small muscles such as the gastrocnemius and the foot as prime movers. Poor pedaling technique with low ankle ROM produces higher torques to pedal at the same power output and higher metabolic cost of pedaling in sedentary subjects [75]. This finding supports Scribbans et al.'s [46] suggestion that the increment in . ...
This study aimed to compare the effects of intensity (I) and duration (D) on the oxidative stress marker (malondialdehyde, MDA) and the responses of the antioxidant enzymes (catalase, CAT; glutathione peroxidase, GPx; superoxide dismutase, SOD) among sedentary adults. In a crossover design, 25 sedentary adults performed nine cycling exercise sessions with a constant load of 50%, 60%, and 70% VO2peak for 10-, 20-, and 30-min each. Plasma MDA, CAT, GPx, and SOD activity were measured before and immediately after each exercise session. Results show that MDA concentration and SOD activity increased significantly immediately after exercise at all intensities and durations, except SOD decreased significantly at 70% V˙O2pk for 30 min. CAT activities also increased significantly after exercise at 50% V˙O2pk for 10 and 20 min but decreased at 60% V˙O2pk for 30 min and at 70% V˙O2pk for all durations. GPx activity decreased significantly after 20 and 30 min at all intensity levels. In conclusion, our results show that cycling at 50%, 60%, and 70% V˙O2pk for 10, 20, and 30 min increased oxidative stress and antioxidant activities, but with different responses. These findings suggest that the starting exercise intensity for sedentary adults should not exceed 70% V˙O2pk.
